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ART  EDUCATION 
FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


A  COA\PREHEKSIVE  TEXT  BOOk  ON 
ART  EDUCATION  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS 
TREATING  PICTORIAL,  DECORATIVE 
AND  CONSTRUCTIVE  ART,  HISTORIC 
ORNAMENT  AND  ART  HISTORY. 


THE  PRAMG  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK     CHICAGO     BOSTON     ATLANTA      DALLAS 


Copyright,  1908,  By 
THE    PRANG    EDUCATIONAL    COMPANY 


'/? 


Acknowledgment 

In  presenting  "Art  Education  for  High  Schools"  to  the  pubhc,  grateful 
acknowledgment  is  made  to  the  many  educators  and  teachers  of  art  who 
have  assisted  in  the  undertaking.  Without  the  inspiration,  suggestion  and 
the  direct  help  received  from  these  sources,  this  book  could  not  have  been 
written.  While  it  is  impossible  to  make  individual  mention  of  those  who 
have  contributed  in  various  ways  to  the  preparation  of  these  pages,  the 
publishers  desire,  by  this  means,  to  express  their  sincere  appreciation  to  all, 
with  the  hope  that  this  volume  will  repay,  in  service  to  the  cause  of  Art 
Education,  the  efforts  put  forth  by  so  many  earnest  workers. 


/ 


2586?! 


Preface 

"Art  Education  for  High  Schools  "  is  planned  upon  the  basic  idea 
that  the  teaching  of  art  is  vastly  more  important  than  the  teaching-  of  draw-^ 
ing.  It  is  believed  that  the  study  of  art  can  be  presented  in  the  light  of 
certain  governing  principles,  which  can  be  developed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
equip  the  high  school  student  at  the  end  ■  of  his  four  years'  course  not  only 
with  a  knowledge  of  material  things  in  the  world  about  him,  seen  under 
various  aspects  and  in  various  relationships,  but  with  such  a  knowledge  of 
art  principles  as  will  give  him  a  better  appreciation  of  the  good  work  of  all 
ages  and  a  fuller  understanding  of  art  in  its  relation  to  his  own  life. 

This  book  is  not  a  course  of  study,  but  its  scope  is  so  broad  and  so 
comprehensive  that  many  courses  of  study  may  be  based  upon  it.  The  aim 
has  been  to  provide  in  the  several  chapters  a  clear  and  definite  presentation 
of  each  important  division  of  the  subject,  and  to  suggest  exercises  which,  if 
worked  out,  will  assist  the  student  in  his  understanding  of  the  topic  treated. 
These  problems  in  themselves  form  an  outline  of  work  that  might  be  taken 
as  a  course  of  study.  The  exercises  given  in  Chapter  VI  stand  as  an  illus- 
tration of  this  feature  of  the  book. 

The  marvellous  development  of  art  education  in  public  schools  that  has 
taken  place  in  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  has  manifested  itself  more  par- 
ticularly in  the  elementary  grades.  As  a  result  of  this  interest  there  is  no 
lack  of  literature  on  this  phase  of  the  subject.  There  are  now  available 
various  published  systems  of  art  education  for  elementary  schools,  with  text- 
books, drawing-books  and  a  large  amount  of  material  constituting  a  full 
equipment  for  work.  But  when  we  look  for  similar  aids  to  the  further 
development  of  this  work  in  high  schools,  academies  and  colleges,  we  find 
almost  nothing  of  an  organized  nature.  The  teacher  of  art  in  a  secondary 
school  must  plan  his  own  course  from  a  confused  mass  of  material  found  in 
various  places,  and  must  transmit  as  much  as  he  can  of  necessary  informa- 
tion to  the  individuals  or  classes  under  his  instruction. 


To  furnish  the  same  kind  of  help  to  high  school  students  and  teachers 
as  is  now  available  to  the  pupils  and  teachers  in  elementary  schools  the 
present  volume  has  been  prepared.  That  it  may  fulfil  in  some  measure  this 
purpose,  and  that  it  may  be  of  substantial  aid  in  establishing  art  education 
as  an  indispensable  factor  in  the  higher  education  of  the  American  people, 
is  the  earnest  wish  of  those  who  have  directed  the  preparation  of  this  work. 


Contents 


PAGE 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Ill 

PREFACE      V 

CONTENTS VII 

CHAPTER 

I  Pictorial  Representation           ......          i 

II  Perspective  Drawing          .......       34 

III  Figure  and  Animal  Drawing    .     (    .         .         .         .         •       71 

IV  Constructive  Drawing       .         .         .         .         .         .         .103 

V  Architectural  Drawing    .         .         .         .         .         .          -1/9 

VI     Design 222 

VII  Historic  Ornament     .         ,         .         .         ,         ,         .         .     277 

VIII     Art  History 303 

Index  .         .         .         .         .         .  •         .         .         .         -341 


.';,i':U'\ 


CHAPTER    I 


PICTORIAL    REPRESENTATION 


Modes  of  Expression.  In  pictorial  representation  there  are  three 
distinct  forms  or  modes  of  expression.  We  can  represent  objects  in  color 
masses,  in  neutral  values  of  light  and  dark,  or  in  outline.  Of  these  three 
modes,  perhaps  the  most  important  is  the  problem  of  representation  by 
means  of  light  and  dark  masses.  As  this  involves  a  knowledge  of  color 
masses,  the  student  will  soon  find  that  outlines  or  contours  can  be  satisfac- 
torily drawn  only  when  the  masses  themselves  are  understood. 

Impressions   Formed   by  Shapes    and    Values    of  Masses. 


Our 


■•!>. 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


first  impression  of  a  tree,  a  person, 
a  landscape,  a  house,  an  animal,  or 
of  any  object  is  of  a  mass  of  color, 
seen  either  alone  or  in  relation  to 
other  masses  of  lighter  or  darker 
color.  We  recognize  objects  by  the 
shapes  of  their  masses  more  readily 
than  by  their  color  or  their  details. 
An  ink  silhouette  of  the  form  of  a 
tree  brings  to  our  mind  the  image 
of  the  tree  just  as  directly  as  does  a 
picture  in  color.  By  the  character- 
istic masses  of  an  oak,  a  maple  or  an 
elm,  we  are  able  to  recognize  the 
particular  kind  of  tree  that  we  see. 
We  do  not  recognize  the  tree  at  a 
distance  by  its  color,  or  by  the  shape 
of  its  leaves.  A  person  approach- 
ing in  the  twilight  is  readily  recog- 
nized, not  only  as  a  person,  but  as 
old  or  young,  as  a  laborer  or  a  professional  man,  or  as  possessing  certain 
other  qualities,  even  when  no  details  whatever  are  seen  (Fig.  i).  Our  im- 
pression is  based  upon  the  characteristic  forms  of  the  color  masses,  or  values, 
and  by  values  is  meant  the  degree  of  light  and  dark  that  a  color  expresses. 
Pictures  of  twilight  or  moonlight  owe  their  effect  of  restf ulness  and  repose 
to  Jfch^elimination  of  detail  and  to  an  emphasis  of  mass  which  permits  the 
eye  to  rest  undisturbed  upon  large  essentials.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2 . 
Minor  details,  it  is  true,  enable  us  to  verify  a  first  impression,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  tree,  but  they  are  subordinate  to  those  things  from  which  we  obtain 
our  first  or  general  impression. 

Study  of  Masses.  The  study  of  pictorial  representation,  then,  should 
begin  with  a  consideration  of  the  characteristics  of  objects  as  expressed  by 
their  principal  masses,  —  the  size,  shape,  and  values  of  these  masses.  Such 
consideration  may  be  followed  by  a  study  of  conditions  that  may  furthe- 
affect  the  appearance  of  these  masses,  such  as  sunlight  and  shadow,  texture, 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTA  TION 


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ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

perspective,  or  the  effect  of  distance  and 
atmospheric  conditions  upon  the  local  color 
of  objects. 

Pictorial  Quality.  Pictorial  quality 
depends  mainly  upon  the  shape,  arrange- 
ment and  values  of  the  masses  of  color 
within  a  given  space ;  for  example,  opposing 
light  and  dark  values  contribute  to  pictorial 
effect,  as  in  the  placing  of  dark  trees  against 
a  light  sky,  a  dark  figure  against  a  light 
background,  or  a  light  figure  against  a 
dark  background.  We  soon  find  that  we 
cannot  disassociate  an  object  from  its  surroundings.  The  environment, 
the  background,  or  the  masses  against  which  objects  are  seen  are  as 
much  to  be  considered  in  picture-making  as  the  shapes  of  the  principal 
masses  themselves,  and  although  they  occupy  a  subordinate  place,  they  are 
important  elements,  and  must  be  duly  related  to  the  whole.  For  example, 
Fig.  3  shows  a  pencil  sketch  of  a  tree,  rendered  in  values  of  gray,  but 
the  effect  obtained  depends  very  largely  on  the  contrast  made  by  these 
values  with  the  light  paper.  If  this  same  drawing  were  made  upon  dark 
paper  we  can  see  that  its  beauty  would  have  been  lost.  If  we  arrange  any 
dark  object  against  a  light  background  and  closely  observe  its  appearance 

we  shall  see,  essentially,  a  spot  of 
dark  color  which  we  might  recognize 
as  the  object  simply  by  the  shape  of 
the  mass.  The  object  in  Fig.  4  is 
easily  represented  by  a  simple  pencil 
drawing  of  its  dark  mass  with  no  con- 
sideration of  background  other  than 
that  afforded  by  the  light  paper.  If, 
however,  the  object  we  select  has  also 
a  mass  of  light,  we  must  then  arrange 
a  sufficiently  dark  surface  against 
which  the  light  mass  may  be  opposed. 
Fig.  5  shows  a  simple  object  drawn 


m 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTATION 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


against  a  background  chosen  to 
provide  contrast  for  each  of  the 
two  vakies  found  in  the  object 
itself. 

Comparative  Values.  Let 
it  be  understood,  then,  that  rep- 
resentation is  a  matter  of  com- 
parative vakies,  and  that  the 
surroundings  of  an  object  are 
important  in  the  consideration 
of  pictorial  effect.  It  does  not 
follow,  however,  that  we  must 
give  the  surroundings  of  an  ob- 
ject equal  importance  with  the 
object  we  have  chosen  for  the 
main  interest.  Suppose,  for  ex- 
ample, that  we  are  to  draw  from 
still-life,  or  from  the  human  fig- 
ure, or  from  some  selected  portion  of  the  landscape,  and  that  we  do  not 
wish  the  surrounding  objects  to  appear  prominent,  or  to  appear  at  all ;  we 
must  then  reduce  these  surrounding  objects  to  simple  tones  of  color  of  the 
value  necessary  to  bring  out  the  quality,  form  and  character  of  the  object  we 
have  selected  for  our  picture.     This  point  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  6  and  7. 

In  our  sketch  of  the  vase 
of  flowers  we  do  not  wish 
to  show  the  books,  which 
may  be  on  the  same  table. 
We  simply  leave  them 
out,  substituting  for  them 
the  tone  or  values  we  de- 
sire as  a  background  for 
our  study. 

Exercises.  Many 
exercises  in  illustration  of 
this  process  of  elimination 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTA  TION 


should  be  drawn  by  the  student,  and  for  such  exercises  arrangements  of 
still-Ufe  will  be  found  convenient,  since  we  can  adjust  backgrounds  or  other 
surroundings  as  we  may  desire.  For  first  exercises,  select,  arrange  and 
draw  objects  of  one  color,  then  try  those  having  more  than  one  color  mass, 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


selecting  backgrounds  whose  values  will  best  bring  out  the  quality  and 
character  of  the  objects  chosen,  as  illustrated  in  Figs.  4,  5,  8  and  9. 

Contrasting  Forms,  Sizes  and  Color  Values.  When  a  reasonable 
degree  of  facility  in  rendering  is  acquired  the  student  will  be  ready  to  under- 
take the  drawing  of  groups  composed  of  objects  having  contrasting  forms, 
sizes  and  color  values.  This  involves  a  more  difficult  problem,  since,  instead 
of  the  simple  elements  supplied  by  one  object,  the  background  and  the  sur- 
face upon  which  the  object  rests,  we  now  have  several  masses  of  different 
shapes,  sizes  and  colors,  which  must  be  considered  first  with  relation  to  one 
another,  and  finally  with  relation  to  the  background,  or  surrounding  masses. 
Fig.  10  shows  how  one  problem  of  this  kind  has  been  worked  out. 

Principal  Masses   and    Masses    of   Lesser  Interest.       In    drawing 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTATIOIV 


from  the  landscape  we  should 
select  and  draw  carefully  the 
elements  upon  which  the  in- 
terest centers,  merely  sug- 
gesting the  elements  of  less 
importance,  or  substituting 
color  values  for  them.  Fig. 
1 1  shows  a  photograph  of  a 
group  of  trees,  in  which  there 
are  many  other  things  that 
do  not  improve  the  pictorial 
effect,  but  divert  the  interest, 
and  thus  detract  from  the 
effect  of  the  trees  of  which 
a  picture  is  desired.  Fig.  1 2 
shows  a  pictorial  rendering 
of  the  same  scene. 

Color  Values.  In  the 
study  of  pictorial  representa- 
tion the  question  of  color 
values  becomes  of  immediate 
interest.  If  we  observe  the 
landscape  in  early  autumn 
for  instance,  we  may  see  a  ^''^-  ^^ 

blue  sky  with  light  clouds,  a  hazy  blue  or  purple  color  in  the  distance,  and  in 
the  foreground,  greens,  reds,  yellows  and  browns, —  some  bright  in  color  and 
some  grayed.  If  we  photograph  this  landscape  we  reduce  everything  to 
values  which  are  all  gray  or  all  brown,  according  to  the  color  of  the  photo- 
graphic paper.  The  only  difference  we  can  then  see  in  the  color  of  the  trees, 
grass,  sky  and  distant  hills  is  in  their  light  and  dark  quahties.  We  know 
that  some  colors  photograph  lighter  than  others,  but  we  know  also  that  an 
ordinary  camera  will  not  give  us  a  translation  of  the  true  color  values  of  all 
colors,  for  those  hues  which  contain  reds  or  yellows  will  photograph  darker 
than  their  true  values,  and  those  dominated  by  blue  will  photograph  lighter 
than  their  true  values.     By  means  of  an  isochromatic  plate,  however,  this 


10 


ART  ED UCA TIO IV  —  HIGH  SCH O OL 


photographic  defect  is  overcome,  and  it  is  possible  to  obtain  true  color 
values,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13.  It  is  by  this  process  that  all  paintings  are 
photographed.  In  representing  the  landscape  with  charcoal  or  pencil  we 
try  to  do  what  the  isochromatic  plate  does  in  photography,  —  to  reduce  all 
colors  to  their  true  light  and  dark  qualities,  without  regard  to  what  is 
generally  meant  by  color  or  hue. 

Color  Quality.  In  painting  from  the  landscape  or  from  other  sub- 
jects, we  must  determine  not  only  the  value  of  a  color,  but  we  must  know 
that  the  local  or  individual  color  of  an  object  is  affected  by  distance  and  by 
conditions  of  the  atmosphere,  or  by  both.  We  know  that  objects  are 
affected  by  perspective,  —  that  distant  objects  appear  much  smaller  in  pro- 
portion than  those  near  by,  —  but  we  do  not  always  appreciate  that  they 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTATION  11 

are  also  changed  in  color.  Between  us  and  the  distant  hills,  for  example,  / 
is  interposed  a  body  of  air  that  acts  like  a  veil,  and,  as  we  look  through  it,  ' 
distant  local  colors  are  rendered  dimmer  and  grayer.  Again,  if  on  a  clear 
day  we  look  into  the  cloudless  sky,  we  see  that  the  color  effect  of  the  air  is 
blue,  but  under  different  conditions  this  body  of  air  may  take  on  different 
colors,  such  as  a  tender  violet,  a  faint  yellow-green,  a  delicate  rose-color  or  a 
subtle  gray.  Between  the  observer  and  a  distant  object  is  always  interposed 
this  body  of  colored  air,  which,  as  we  look  through  it,  affects  the  local  color 
of  all  objects  in  greater  or  less  degree,  according  to  their  distances.  As 
distance  increases,  forms  seem  to  grow  smaller,  and  the  shape  and  local 
color  less  distinct.  As  distance  decreases,  forms  appear  larger  and  more 
distinct,  and  the  local  color  grows  stronger  and  less  gray,  until,  when  the 
object  is  near  the  eye,  its  real  local  color  may  be  determined. 

In  a  fertile,  cultivated  country,  where  a  moist  atmosphere  prevails,  the 
color  of  objects  at  a  distance  is  more  affected  than  in  a  dry,  desert  country, 
where  there  is  little  or  no  moisture  in  the  air.  The  dryer  the  atmosphere, 
the  thinner  the  interposing  veil,  and  the  more  distinct  and  local  in  their 
coloring  are  distant  objects.  For  this  reason,  distances  in  a  very  dry 
climate  are  deceptive  to  one  who  is  accustomed  to  the  moist  atmosphere  of  a 
fertile  country.  But  in  any  country  atmospheric  conditions  vary.  On  a 
bright  day  we  see  objects  more  nearly  in  their  local  color  than  we  do  on 
a  gray  day.  Under  ordinary  conditions  we  can  see,  when  we  are  close  to 
a  tree,  that  its  mass  of  foliage  is  green,  the  local  color.  As  we  go  from 
the  tree  we  see  the  green  through  the  atmospheric  veil,  and  it  is  gradually 
grayed.  At  a  great  distance  the  line  of  houses,  trees  and  hills  is  all 
merged  into  one  mass  of  gray,  and  this  gray  may  take  on  different  hues, 
according  to  different  conditions  of  the  atmosphere.  This  is  well  illus- 
trated in  the  four  sketches  on  the  plate  facing  page  256,  showing  the  same 
landscape  under  four  different  conditions  of  the  atmosphere.  In  the  study 
of  objects  that  are  close  to  us  the  atmospheric  effect  is  not  so  pronounced, 
yet  it  is  a  matter  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  our  consideration. 

Light  and  Shade.  Another  modification  of  the  appearance  of  an 
object  is  the  effect  of  sunlight  and  shadow,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  of  light  and 
shade.  An  object  when  exposed  to  a  bright  light  presents  a  light  surface 
on  the  side  near  the  light,  and  a  darker  surface  on  the  side  away  from  the 


12 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


light.  Whatever  the  local  color  of  an  object  may  be,  it  is  always  influenced 
by  this  effect  of  light.  Any  object  seen  indoors,  or  where  there  is  compara- 
tively little  light,  appears  much  darker  than  it  does  when  seen  under  direct  sun- 
light. The  real  local  color  of  an  object  is  determined  when  it  is  seen  under 
diffused  light, —  that  is,  under  light  that  does  not  strike  the  object  from  some 
direct  center,  like  a  lamp  or  candle,  or  in  the  form  of  direct  sunshine. 

In  arranging  still-life  objects  or  groups  for  the  study  of  light  and  shade, 
we  should  avoid  the  extremes  of  too  much  or  too  little  light.  The  diffused 
light  o±  a  room  is  best  for  the  drawing  of  still-life,  and  by  means  of  a 
shadow-box  we  can  control  the  light  effects  upon  a  group.     By  fastening 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTATION  13 

together  two  pieces  of  board  (Fig.  14)  and  placing  them  in  such  a  way  as 
to  exclude  the  light  from  all  or  a  part  of  our  group  we  can  soften  the  effect 
of  the  bright  light  from  the  windows.  The  shadow- box,  too,  helps  us  to 
overcome  the  intermingled  lights  and  shadows,  or  cross-lights,  that  proceed 
from  several  windows,  or  from  several  sources  of  light  in  a  room.  In 
elementary  exercises  it  is  best  for  us  to  work  from  light  effects  that  show 
one  light  side,  one  dark  side  and  one  shadow  onl}'. 

In  a  bright  light,  the  contrast  between  the  light  side  and  the  shaded 
side  of  the  object  will  be  strong, — we  know  that  the  bright  light  of  noon- 
day, for  instance,  casts  the  darkest  shadows.  The  dimmer  the  light,  as  at 
evening,  the  less  contrast  there  is  between  the  light  and  shaded  sides  of 
any  object  —  the  less  distinct  is  the  difference  between  the  shaded  side  and 
the  shadow.  We  can  easily  demonstrate  this  if  we  observe  objects  in  a 
room  that  is  lighted  by  gas.  If  the  gaslight  is  gradually  turned  off,  we  can 
see  that  the  shadows  become  less  strong  as  the  light  grows  dimmer.  .  The 
length  of  shadows  is  determined  by  the  position  of  the  light,  —  the  higher 
the  light,  the  shorter  the  shadow.  This,  again,  is  illustrated  in  the  com- 
parison of  shadows  seen  at  midday  with  those  seen  in  the  late  afternoon. 
Shadows  also  soften  and  become  less  clearly  defined  as  they  recede  from 
the  object  that  casts  them,  and  in  the  same  proportion  that  dark  masses 
grow  lighter,  so  light  masses  grow  darker  as  they  recede,  or  as  distance 
affects  them. 

Reflections.  Polished  surfaces  reflect,  more  or  less  perfectly,  the 
images  of  objects  placed  upon  them.  A  quiet  pool  of  water,  for  example, 
will  reflect  the  trees  upon  its  banks  with  the  fidelity  of  a  mirror,  but  the 
slightest  movement  of  the  surface  of  the  water  will  produce  lines  in  the 
reflection  which  add  to  its  artistic  quality,  even  though  they  distort  the  per- 
fect image.  Colors,  also,  are  influenced  in  reflections  by  the  quality  of  the 
light  overhead,  and  by  the  color  of  the  water  in  the  pool  or  stream,  which 
varies  from  time  to  time,  according  to  prevailing  conditions. 

In  arranging  still-life  studies,  objects  made  of  glass  or  of  polished 
metal,  such  as  brass  or  copper,  are  often  used  in  order  to  gain,  through 
reflections,  added  variety  and  interest  in  foregrounds.  Landscape  painting, 
also,  offers  opportunity  for  the  use  of  reflections,  as  the  paintings  of  Corot, 
Inness,  Turner,  and  of  many  other  artists  so  well  illustrate. 


14 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Outline      Drawing. 

Although  it  is  true  that 
we  see  objects  in  color 
masses,  and  that  we  are 
able  to  distinguish  one 
object  from  another  by 
means  of  the  size,  shape 
and  character  of  the 
various  color  masses  pre- 
sented, we  know  that  rep- 
resentation is  not  confined 
to  mass  drawing  or  paint- 
ing. Objects  may  be 
represented  by  outline 
drawing  also,  and  although 
this  method  is  more  or 
less  abstract,  it  is  possible 
to  express  in  outline  all 
the  characteristics  of  an 
object  except  its  color. 
Textures,  even,  of  various 
kinds,  such  as  the  hard 
surface  of  stone  or  of  pot- 
tery, the  woody  quality  of 
a  tree-trunk  or  twig,  the 
^'*''  ^^  delicate  petal  of  a  flower, 

or  the  fur  or  hair  of  some  animal,  may  all  be  expressed  by  means  of  outline 
drawing.  To  be  able  to  so  qualify  a  line  as  to  make  it  express  these  char- 
acteristics requires  skill  and  experience,  and  a  knowledge  of  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  mass  which  such  an  outline  limits  or  bounds.  We  could  not,  for 
example,  draw  a  map  in  outline  unless  we  had  a  knowledge  of  the  size,  shape 
and  topography  of  the  area  of  country  which  the  map  was  intended  to  repre- 
sent. Sometimes,  it  is  true,  outline  drawings  are  purely  symbolic,  as  in  the 
drawings  of  little  children  or  of  savage  tribes,  but  in  all  technical  and  artistic 
work,  outline  drawing  aims  to  express  every  quality  of  an  object  except  its  color. 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTATION 


Blocking   in.      In 

outline  drawing,  and  some- 
times in  mass  drawing  as 
well,  we  often  "block  in  " 
or  sketch  with  light  lines 
the  general  proportion  and 
shape  of  objects.  This 
enables  us  to  make  several 
estimates  before  placing 
the  final  line,  and  in  this 
way  we  avoid  the  errors 
that   result  from    the  at- 

FiG.   17 

tempt    to    complete    one 

part  of  the  drawing  before  another  part  is  studied  or  begun.  If  a  drawing  is 
faulty  in  its  proportions,  or  in  the  relative  positions  of  its  various  parts,  no 
amount  of  careful  finishing  can  correct  the  mistake.  It  is  therefore  best  to 
sketch  very  simply,  or  block  in,  lines  that  will  indicate  the  size,  shape  and 
position  of  parts,  before  spending  any  effort  on  technique  of  line,  or  upon  the 
careful  drawing  of  any  one  part. 

Fig.  1 5  shows  a  drawing  which  might  easily  result  if  we  should  begin 
our  study  of  a  dog,  for  example,  by  drawing  the  nose  first,  and  continue  to 
the  line  of  the  head,  back,  etc.  Our  attention  would  probably  be  fixed  on 
the  line,  rather  than  upon  the  general  proportion,  and  the  result  would  be  a 
distortion.  Fig.  i6  shows  a  better  way  of  beginning  all  studies  of  this 
nature.  Fig.  17  shows  the  vigorous  lines  that  are  put  in,  with  the  lighter, 
block  lines  used  as  a  guide. 

When  a  careful  drawing  of  an  object  is  to  be  made  in  charcoal  the 
form  should  be  suggested  by  loose,  light  lines,  drawn  with  a  sharpened 
stick  of  hard  charcoal.  Hold  the  charcoal  loosely,  and  "feel"  for  the  form 
in  a  series  of  light  lines,  correcting,  changing  and  redrawing  without  eras- 
ing until  the  right  line  is  obtained.  If  erasures  are  made  the  tendency  will 
be  to  repeat  the  error  in  a  new  line,  but  if  all  tentative  or  trial  lines  are 
kept,  the  error  will  be  seen,  and  that  error,  at  least,  will  not  be  repeated. 
In  the  finished  drawing,  all  lines  may  be  erased  except  those  expressing  the 
correct  drawing  of  the  form  under  consideration.     Fig.  18  shows  an  outline 


16  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


drawing  of   a  group  studied  in  this  way,  before  the  trial  Hnes  are  erased. 
Fig.  19  shows  a  similar  group  with  the  trial  lines  erased. 

Composition.  In  every  picture  there  should  be  a  spot  or  center  of 
particular  interest, — a  place  where  the  eye  pauses  or  rests.  This  center 
may  be  simply  a  combination  of  colors,  or  it  may  consist  of  some  object,  as 
a  tree,  a  house,  or  the  face  in  a  portrait.  If  we  wish  to  paint  a  picture  of  a 
tree  we  should  first  consider  the  placing  of  the  sketch  upon  our  canvas. 
There  would  be,  also,  various  masses  or  shapes  against  which  the  tree 
would  be  seen,  such  as  the  mass  of  the  sky,  the  mass  of  the  distance,  the 
mass  of  a  hillside,  or  a  barn,  or  of  other  trees,  and  the  mass  of  the  fore- 
ground. The  right  selection  of  all  these  shapes,  the  adjustment  of  their 
sizes,  positions,  proportions  and  color  values  is  what  is  meant  by  composi- 
tion. This  adjustment  can  be  determined  only  by  much  practice  and  expe- 
rience, combined  with  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  design. 


PIC  TORI  A I   REPRESENTA  TION 


17 


^■\ 


\  i 


V 


A  finder  (Fig.  20)  is  a  device  that  enables  us  to  exercise  our  judgment  ' 
in  selecting  a  composition.  If  we  look  through  the  opening,  changing  its 
size  and  shape  as  we  move  the  finder  about,  a  variety  of  arrangements  can 
be  seen,  and  we  can  select  and  control  the  shapes  which  make  up  our 
picture.  Sometimes  the  elements  we  wish  to  use  will  look  better  in  a  hori- 
zontal enclosure,  as,  for  instance,  in  painting  a  broad  expanse  of  the  sea; 
and  sometimes  a  vertical  enclosure  seems  best,  as  when  a  ship  with  a  mast 
or  when  tall  trees  or  buildings  are  the  important  elements.     The  comparison 


18 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


r 


X  I 


4  -'    ■ 

^-- 

/ 

-^ 

.^..J^ 


'^^. 


4^ 


^'^ 


5^ 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTA  TIOiV 


19 


? 


I  1 


W* 


of  these  effects  and  the  effort  to  select  the  best  of  several  arrangements 
develop  artistic  taste  and  judgment. 

Exercises  with  the  Finder.  To  test  the  efficacy  of  the  finder  as 
an  aid  to  good  composition,  select  some  object  around  which  you  wish  the 
interest  of  a  sketch  to  center.  Adjust  the  opening  until  you  have  obtained 
a  good  relationship  of  all  shapes  enclosed,  considering  not  only  the  shapes 
in  the  object  itself,  but  also  the  shapes  made  by  the  background,  foreground 
and  by  all  other  elements  included.  The  center  of  interest  should  not 
occupy  the  exact  center  of  the  composition,  as  such  a  position  is  apt  to 
divide  the  background  spaces  evenly,  and  our  picture  would  lack  what  is 
known  as  variet)- ;  the  arrangement  would  be  monotonous,  as  Fig.  2 1 
illustrates.  It  is  safe  to  avoid  any  arrangement  that  divides  the  back- 
ground into  equal  right  and  left  spaces,  or  into  equal  upper  and  lower 
spaces.  Neither  should  the  center  of  interest  be  placed  too  far  at  one  side, 
as  in  Fig.  22.  Interest,  variety  and  balance  are  all  secured  by  the  arrange- 
ment shown  in  Fig.  23. 

A  little  practice  will  enable  the  student  to  select  with  the  finder  good 
arrangements  from  the  landscape.  In  still-life  composition,  also,  may  be 
found  very  interesting  arrangements  of  shapes,  of  light  and  dark  effects 
and   of   color.     In   arranging  groups  of    objects  we  must    remember    that 


20 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


OO^' 


interest  depends  largely  upon 
variety  in  the  objects  chosen, 
in  their  relative  positions, 
and  in  the  unity  or  com- 
pleteness of  the  group  as  a 
whole.  After  the  objects 
are  selected  and  placed,  the 
group  should  be  studied 
through  a  finder  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  defi- 
nitely the  size  of  the  back- 
ground spaces,  and  of  re- 
viewing critically  the  whole 
arrangement  before  begin- 
ning to  draw.  The  finder 
helps  us  to  shut  out  sur- 
rounding and  conflicting 
elements,  and  centers  our 
attention  and  judgment  upon 
the  shapes  seen  through  the 
opening.  Its  use  in  select- 
ing and  studying  composi- 
tions is  similar  to  the  use 
made  of  a  finder  by  the 
photographer,  who  studies 
the  picture  seen  upon  his 
ground  glass,  or  finder, 
Fig.  26  Fig.  27  bcforc    his    negative    is    ex- 

posed. 
The  student  should  practise  making  several  arrangements  of  the  same 
group,  studying  the  different  effects  through  the  finder  and  trying  to  decide 
as  to  the  best  composition.  Practise,  also,  from  groups  of  different  objects, 
changing  the  members  of  a  group  or  rearranging  them  until  good  composi- 
tions are  obtained.  Such  exercises  will  probably  result  in  many  deductions 
such  as  the  following :  — ■ 


PICTORIAL   KEPRESENTA  TION 


'  Too  many  objects  of  equal  importance  in 
size,  shape,  color,  character,  etc.,  scatter  the 
interest  (Fig.  24). 

Objects  placed  beside  each  other  in  a  row 
give  an  arrangement  that  lacks  unity  (Fig.  25). 

Equal  divisions  of  space  render  the  arrange- 
ment monotonous  (Figs.  26  and  27). 

Too  great  a  difference  in  the  areas  gives 
an  effect  of  unbalanced  arrangement  (Fig.  28). 

One  object  placed  directly  in  front  of 
another  gives  an  unpleasant  effect  of  massing 
(Fig.  29). 

There  must  be  some  relationship  or  har- 
mony between  the  various  objects  in  a  picture. 
Although  the  objects  in  Fig.  30  make  a  good 
composition,  so  far  as  shape,  arrangement,  and 
values  are  concerned,  the  group  is  not  harmoni- 
ous because  its  members  are  incongruous.  This 
is  corrected  in  Fig.  3 1 . 

Landscape  Drawing.  Up  to  this  point, 
what  has  been  said  in  this  chapter  refers  to  the 
representation  of  all  kinds  of  objects,  as  the  illus- 
trations indicate.  After  establishing  these  general 
principles,  it  will  be  well  to  consider  some  points 
bearing  on  the  representation  of  particular  classes 
of  objects  with  which  the  student  will  be  con- 
cerned. The  landscape  immediately  suggests 
itself  as  a  source  to  which  we  turn  more  fre- 
quently than  to  any  other.  The  best  possible 
conditions  under  which  to  study  the  landscape 
are  reached  when  we  go  directly  to  it  for  this 
purpose.  If  we  can  look  through  a  finder  at 
actual  trees,  hills,  houses,  water  and  sky  and  find 
beautiful  compositions  of  line,  light  and  dark, 
and  color,  we  may  quickly  gain  both  appreciation 


22  ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 

of  the  beauty  of  nature  and  the  abihty  to  select  a  portion  of  that  beauty  for 
a  picture.  If  these  ideal  conditions  are  not  possible,  however,  we  can  use 
photographs  of  nature  as  a  substitute,  and  it  is  to  the  photograph  we  must 
resort  in  the  majority  of  schools.  When  this  is  done,  every  opportunity  for 
out-of-door  sketching  should  be  grasped  as  an  aid  to  the  development  of  this 
preliminary  study,  based  upon  pictures.  Whether  we  work  from  nature  or 
from  pictures,  the  fundamental  principles  and  the  method  of  following  them 
will  be  the  same. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  parts  of  the  landscape  as  the  distance  (meaning 
the  part  farthest  away),  X^o.  foreground  (meaning  the  part  nearest;,  and  the 
middle  distance  (meaning  the  part  midway  between  distance  and  foreground). 
These  are  only  relative  terms,  however,  and  must  not  be  understood  as 
meaning  a  definite,  measurable  portion  of  the  landscape  or  picture  space. 
But  the  student  must  understand  how  to  locate  masses  or  shapes  in  the 
several  places  indicated. 

How  to  Begin  a  Study  of  the  Landscape.  Look  through  your 
finder  and  select  an  arrangement  of  light  and  dark  shapes  in  the  landscape, 
showing  hills,  trees  and  sky,  or  any  other  landscape  elements.  In  first  prac- 
tice, work  only  for  values,  leaving  out  all  details.  With  brush,  charcoal  or 
soft  pencil  put  in  the  masses,  keeping  the  composition  very  simple.  Draw 
or  paint  in  this  way  until  you  are  able  to  produce  from  the  landscape  before 
you,  or  from  a  photograph  of  the  landscape,  a  composition  that  is  interesting 
in  the  selection  of  shapes,  balanced  in  arrangement,  and  rendered  in  a  few 
simple  values,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  32.  Continue  to  make  in  this  way 
arrangements  from  the  landscape,  keeping  your  rendering  in  flat  tones,  in  a 
few  values.  Either  color  values  or  neutral  grays  may  be  used,  with  any 
medium  preferred. 

Color  Added  to  a  Pencil  Sketch  of  the  Landscape.  Attractive 
compositions  may  be  made  with  pencil  on  tinted  paper,  applying  thin  color 
washes  over  the  pencil  work.  Fig.  33  shows  a  pencil  drawing  on  tinted 
paper  of  some  fishermen's  huts,  built  upon  posts  or  piles  over  the  water. 
Notice  the  interesting  treatment  of  the  reflections,  and  the  slight  but  telling 
suggestion  of  distance.  The  pencil  sketch  is  a  complete  thing  in  itself ;  but 
the  few  strokes  of  water-color  added  in  the  plate  facing  page  24  open  up 
a  world  of  color  possibilities  which  the  pencil  sketch  can  but  faintly  suggest. 


I 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTA  TIOM 


Details  of  the  Landscape.  Follow  this  practice  by  a  careful  study 
of  individual  objects,  such  as  trees,  clouds,  fences,  houses,  etc.  Make  care- 
ful, suggestive  sketches  of  such  objects,  treating  them  as  notes  or  studies 
to  be  used  in  landscape  painting  or  drawing,  as  occasion  offers.  Artists 
fill  many  note-books  or  portfolios  with  studies  like  those  shown  in  Fig.  34. 
How  to  best  use  these  notes  is  a  matter  requiring  judgment  and  skill.  Too 
much  detail  will  render  a  picture  photographic  in  effect,  ^nd  this  is  not 
desirable ;  too  little  will  show  a  lack  of  structural  knowledge  and  of  texture. 
We  must  know  how  to  suggest  that  rocks  are  hard,  that  clouds  are  soft, 
that    hills  are  solid   and    that    water    may    show    movement    or   present   a 


24 


ART  EDUCAT/OA^—N/GH  SCHOOL 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTA  HON 


25 


J^S 


^<|fc^ 


'XW* 


26  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

mirror-like  surface.     We  wish  to  show  as  much  of  texture  and  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  landscape  elements  as  will  add  to  the  interest,  variety,  and  * 
beauty  of  our  picture.     A  knowledge  of  the  structural  quality  of  the  landscape 
is  valuable,  and  necessary  in  the  same  way  that  a  knowledge  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  human  figure  is  essential  to  good  drawing  from  life. 

Accents.  In  the  studies  shown  in  Fig.  34  you  will  notice  sharp, 
black  touches  called  accents,  which  are  made  with  the  full  strength  of  the 
pencil  and  are  placed  wherever  they  seem  needed.  These  are  important 
in  lending  brilliancy  and  sparkle  to  the  sketch,  and  they  give,  besides,  a 
certain  quality  to  any  characteristics  that  an  object  may  present.  This  is 
shown  in  the  treatment  of  roof  edges,  openings  in  the  foliage,  undercuts  in 
branches,  or  in  the  irregular  depths  of  shade  in  doors  and  windows.  When 
used  without  discrimination  accents  injure  a  sketch,  but  when  skilfully 
placed  they  are  indispensable. 

Figures  in  the  Landscape.  If  the  student  is  able  to  use  human 
figures  or  animals  in  landscape  compositions  he  will  find  his  resources  for 
interesting  material  much  extended.  All  such  elements  of  interest  must 
be  treated  as  part  of  the  composition,  and  not  as  something  added  or  thrown 
in  after  the  composition  is  complete.  The  mass  or  shape  of  a  man  or  a 
cow  must  be  related  to  the  other  shapes  of  the  picture,  just  as  the  mass  or 
shape  of  a  hillside  or  a  house  is  related,  and  its  size,  position,  value  or  color 
must  be  analyzed  and  made  to  take  its  place  in  the  whole  scheme.  In  • 
using  figures  or  animals,  however,  we  shall  have  to  decide  whether  the 
landscape  interest  or  the  figure  interest  is  to  predominate.  If  the  former, 
we  must  reduce  the  size  of  the  figures  and  give  them  secondary  treatment, 
as  in  Fig.  35.  If  the  latter,  we  use  the  landscape  as  an  accessor)^,  and  give 
the  figures  prominence,  as  in  Fig.  36.  But  in  both  cases  the  figures  are 
treated  as  a  part  of  the  composition,  and  in  neither  case  would  the  picture  be 
complete  without  them. 

Still-life  Drawing.  The  class  of  material  for  art  study  known  as  still-  \ 
life  includes  pottery,  flowers,  fruits,  vegetables,  utensils  of  various  kinds,  or 
any  other  objects  selected  for  use  because  of  some  interesting  problem 
which  they  may  present  or  suggest.  When  we  speak  of  a  still-life  study 
we  mean  an  arrangement  of  objects  that  we  can  control,  some  group  whose 
members  we  can  select  or  combine  to  suit  our  purpose,  and  which,  with 


PICTORIAL   KEPRESENTA  TION 


27 


some  exceptions,  can  be 
kept  for  study  for  an 
indefinite  time.  In  the 
landscape  we  know  that 
conditions  change,  often 
very  rapidly,  and  in 
drawing  from  the  figure 
or  from  animals  we  are 
again  limited  in  time  by 
the  endurance  or  by  the 
mood  or  whim  of  our 
subject.  Because  of  the 
stability  of  still-life  mate- 
rial and  because  we  can 
govern  so  directly  its 
choice  and  arrangement, 
it  offers  the  very  best 
opportunity  for  thorough 
practice  in  drawing  and 
for  the  study  of  the 
general  principles  which 
have  been  explained  in 
this  chapter.  In  this 
material    we  miss,    it  is  p^^  35 

true,    some    of    the   de- 

hghtful  effects  of  distance,  atmosphere,  and  of  certain  kinds  of  perspective, 
but  the  student  that  is  well  grounded  in  still-life  practice  will  be  able  to 
apply  what  he  has  learned  in  any  direction  that  he  may  select.  Still-life 
practice  is  to  the  artist  what  4aily  physical  exercise  is  to  the  athlete ;  it  gives 
greater  power,  and  this  insures  better  results. 

Still-life  Studies  with  Charcoal.  It  will  be  found  that  all  kinds  of 
paper  do  not  take  charcoal  equally  well,  and  a  rough,  unglazed  paper  espe- 
cially prepared  for  this  work,  called  charcoal  paper,  should  be  procured.  For 
certain  effects,  cartridge  paper  or  butcher's  wrapping-paper  is  often  used  to 
good  advantage. 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


After  carefully  re- 
viewing what  has  been 
said  regarding  masses, 
values,  effects  of  light 
and  shade,  and  composi- 
tion, arrange  a  simple 
group  of  still-life  objects 
and  study  it  through  a 
finder.  When  satisfied 
that  your  group  answers 
the  requirements,  block 
in  the  main  shapes, 
using  a  sharpened  stick 
of  charcoal  of  medium 
hardness.  Then  lay  in 
the  large  masses,  trying 
to  express  at  once  their 
true  shapes  and  values 
(Fig.  37).  After  these 
masses  are  applied  freely 
with  the  charcoal  point, 
they  may  be  rubbed 
lightly  with  the  finger 
ends  in  order  to  distrib- 

FiG.  36 

ute  the  charcoal  evenly 
over  the  surface  of  the  paper  (Fig.  38).  If  the  charcoal  is  rubbed  too 
heavily  the  paper  will  present  a  smudged  or  smeared  appearance,  which  of 
course  should  be  avoided.  After  the  surface  has  been  lightly  rubbed  the 
masses  that  need  strengthening  should  be  gone,  over  again  and  the  necessary 
lights  taken  out  with  kneaded  rubber.  Tones  that  seem  too  dark  or  too  f 
aggressive  may  be  wiped  off  or  softened  with  a  chamois  skin  or  soft  cloth,  j 
After  the  larger  values  are  laid  in,  the  smaller  lights  and  darks,  the  reflections 
and  other  secondary  elements  should  be  studied,  the  student  working  with 
charcoal,  chamois  skin  and  eraser  until  the  desired  effect  is  obtained. 
Fig.  39  shows  such  a  drawing  completed.     To  preserve  a  drawing  of  this 


PICTORIAL    REPRESEXTA  TION 


kind,  it  should  be  sprayed  with  a  thin  solution  of  white  shellac  and  alcohol, 
called  fixative.  This  makes  a  thin  varnish  which  causes  the  particles  of 
charcoal  to  adhere  to  the  paper. 

Pencil  Studies.     Any    good    drawing-paper    with  a  hard  surface  will 
answer  for  pencil  work,  and  interesting  studies  may  be  obtained  from  the 
use  of  the  tinted  pencil  papers  now  so  generally  supplied.     A  soft  pencil  I 
that  gives  a  broad  definite  line  at  one  stroke  is  best  for  general  use.     A  \ 
pencil  drawing  must  never  be  rubbed,  as  is  permissible  in  charcoal  rendering. 

The  attempt  should  be  to  gain  the  desired  value  by  direct  strokes,  instead 
of  by  working  over  a  mass  more  than  once.  Before  attempting  to  apply  a  tone 
or  value,  study  it  carefully  and  practise  with  your  pencil  on  an  extra  piece  of 
paper  until  you  are  able  to  produce  the  full  strength  of  the  value  by  going  over 
the  surface  of  the  paper  but  once.  Then  apply  it  freely  to  the  desired  area 
of  your  composition.  Figs.  3,  4,  5,  14,  20,  33,  34  and  35  all  show 
examples  of  pencil  rendering.     Study  good  pencil  drawings,  notice  the  kinds 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTATION  31 

of  lines  used,  and  try  for  this  quality  in  your  practice.  Pencil  studies,  also, 
should  be  well  sprayed  with  fixative,  to  prevent  them  from  rubbing. 

The  plate  facing  page  22  shows  a  pencil  sketch  on  tinted  paper.  The 
pose  was  chosen  for  the  subject  of  the  sketch,  the  letter-box  on  the  lamp- 
post being  drawn  from  memory,  as  well  as  the  few  touches  that  suggest  the 
street.  After  the  figure  with  these  environments  had  been  blocked  in,  the 
dark  values  of  the  cap,  coat,  etc.  were  laid  on  with  definite,  vigorous 
strokes.  The  lighter  values  in  the  pose  were  expressed  by  the  color  of  the 
paper.  The  pencil  sketch  appeared  quite  finished  before  the  water-color 
touches,  which  were  tints  rather  than  washes  of  full  strength,  were  added. 

Water-Color  Handling.  There  are  many  different  methods  of 
handling  water-colors,  each  sanctioned  by  artistic  authority.  As  the  best 
method  is  largely  a  matter  of  individual  choice,  it  will  be  wiser  for  the 
student  to  learn  one  method,  and  after  he  has  become  familiar  with  that, 
he  can,  by  experimenting,  and  by  study  and  practice,  find  out  how  the  method 
he  has  learned  may  be  modified  or  adapted  to  suit  his  particular  needs. 
Some  successful  artists  prefer  to  work  upon  paper  that  is  previously  made 
moist,  while  others,  equally  successful,  prefer  to  work  directly  on  dry  paper. 
In  good  results  of  either  method  we  would  hardly  be  able  to  tell  which  one 
was  used.  It  is  the  quality  of  the  result  that  is  important,  not  the  method 
by  which  such  a  result  is  obtained.  Whatman's  hand-made  paper  is  best 
for  water-color  work.  This  is  somewhat  expensive  for  beginners,  however, 
and  many  other  cheaper  papers  will  answer.  Good  pencil  paper  of  sufficient 
tooth  will  generally  take  water-color  quite  satisfactorily. 

One  Way  of  Using  the  Wet  Method.  Dip  in  water  a  piece  of 
blotting-paper  (cut  slightly  larger  than  the  paper  which  is  to  receive  your 
painting),  and  lay  it  upon  your  drawing-board.  Upon  this  lay  the  water-color 
paper,  which  has  also  been  dipped  in  water.  With  a  dry  blotting-paper  of  the 
same  size  as  the  water-color  paper  remove  any  superfluous  moisture  that  may 
rest  upon  the  paper.  Then  wuth  a  brush  full  of  wet  color  (not  too  much 
water)  lay  in  the  masses,  working  with  great  directness.  As  long  as  the 
paper  remains  m^oist  changes  can  be  made,  other  colors  or  masses  added, 
or  lights  removed  by  a  dry  brush,  a  soft  sponge  or  a  cloth.  The  plate 
facing  page  12  shows  a  sketch  made  on  moist  paper. 

The  Dry   Method.       In    the    dry   method   of   working,    the   color     is 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


'^^ 


'^.' 


applied  directly   to   the   dry   surface    of  the   paper,  the   brush   being    used 
wetter  than  it  is  when  the  paper  is  moist.     In  the  wet  method  the  water 


PICTORIAL   REPRESENTATION  83 

already  on  the  paper  helps  to  carry  the  color,  and  in  the  dry  method  more 
water  is  needed  in  the  brush  to  sufficiently  dissolve  or  thin  the  color.  In 
working  "dry,"  changes  are  not  easily  made,  and  should  be  avoided. 
Generally  speaking,  the  wet  method  gives  softer  and  more  melting  effects, 
while  crisp  and  snappy  effects  are  more  easily  obtained  by  the  dry  method. 

It  is  usually  found  that  the  beginner  succeeds  better  when  he  works 
upon  wet  paper  until  he  feels  some  confidence  in  his  use  of  color.  He 
must  learn  by  experience  when  the  paper  and  colors  are  wet  enough,  yet 
not  too  wet,  to  produce  the  desired  result.  The  more  practice  he  has  the 
more  he  will  feel  like  making  a  combination  of  both  methods  in  his  work. 

Color  Added  to  Charcoal  Drawings.  Very  interesting  effects  are 
obtained  by  applying  water-colors  to  a  charcoal  or  pencil  drawing.  Fig. 
40  shows  a  charcoal  study  which  is  finished^  values  and  in  light  and 
shade,  and  has  been  sprayed  with  fixative.  Light  washes  of  water-color  were  1 
then  added.  (See  plate  facing  page  i.)  Try  this  with  some  of  the  sketches 
you  have  saved  from  former  practice.  If  you  begin  a  study  with  the  idea  of 
finishing  it  in  color,  it  will  be  well  to  keep  the  lights  very  light  in  the  '' 
charcoal  work,  or  the  color  will  darken  them  too  much. 

The  Use  of  Colored  Chalks,  or  Crayons.  The  plate  facing  this  page 
shows  another  interesting  method  of  securing  good  color  effects.  Tinted 
paper  of  good  color  and  quality  is  taken  as  a  foundation  or  background. 
The  position  and  forms  of  the  objects  are  blocked  in  lightly  and  the  color 
masses  are  then  laid  on  in  a  loose,  free  way,  allowing  the  tint  or  color  of 
the  paper  to  shimmer  through.  The  full  force  of  color,  laid  on  with  bold 
strokes,  is  reserved  for  a  few  accents  and  high  lights.  Drawings  of  this 
character  should  be  sprayed  with  fixative. 

With  colored  chalks  (which  are  opaque),  either  dark  or  light  tinted  papers 
can  be  used,  but  when  water-color  washes  are  to  be  applied,  it  is  best  to 
choose  light  tints  of  paper,  owing  to  the  transparent  nature  of  the  medium. 

In  all  your  practice,  whether  from  still-life,  from  plant  growth,  from 
the  landscape  or  the  human  figure,  and  in  whatever  medium  you  work,  try 
to  express  simply  and  truthfully  the  character  and  spirit  of  your  study. 


CHAPTER    II 

PERSPECTIVE 

Perspective  is  the  art  of  representing  upon  a  plane  surface  the  appear- 
ance of  any  object,  without  regard  to  the  facts  of  its  form  and  size.  A  per- 
spective drawing  generally  shows  the  effect  of  a  third  dimension  upon  a 
surface,  such  as  a  sheet  of  paper,  which  has  but  two  dimensions.  Although 
'perspective  is  an  exact  science  and  is  governed  by  principles  that  can  be 
demonstrated,  a  working  Icnowledge  of  its  laws  may  best  be  gained  by 
observation  from  nature  and  from  objects. 

The  knowledge  gained  by  such  observation  and  by  practice  is  often 
spoken  of  as  free-hand  perspective,  while  the  study  of  the  mathematical  laws 
which  govern  the  appearance  of  objects  is  called  scientijc  or  mechanical  per- 
spective. In  practising  free-hand  perspective  the  student  strives  to  express 
what  he  sees  or  feels,  and  he  is  not  restricted  by  attention  to  exact  formulas 
and  measurements.  In  scientific  perspective  he  assumes  a  picture  plane,  a 
horizon  or  eye-level,  a  point  of  distance,  vanishing  points  and  distance  points, 
and  then  proceeds  upon  a  purely  scientific  basis.  This  process  results  in  a 
technically  correct  representation  of  the  object  as  it  would  appear  under  the 
assumed  conditions. 

Free-Hand  Perspective.  Perspective  affects  nearly  everything  that 
we  see.  If  we  look  across  a  field,  as  illustrated  in  the  color  plate  opposite, 
we  observe  that  objects  in  the  distance  appear  much  smaller  than  they  really 
are.'  The  trees  that  are  shown  in  the  sketch,  for  instance,  might  all  have 
been  of  the  same  size,  but  as  they  recede  or  are  seen  farther  and  farther  away, 
they  apparently  diminish  in  size,  and  the  tree  in  the  foreground  appears  higher 
than  the  top  of  the  distant  mountain,  although  we  know  that  in  reality  the 
mountain  towers  high  above  the  tree  which  is  near  us.  In  the  picture  we 
notice,  also,  that  colors  are  dimmer  and  grayer  in  the  distance,  and  that  the 


^^ 


iym 


**^4 


PERSPECTIVE  35 

light  and  dark  masses  are  less  strong  in  contrast  as  they  are  seen  farther 
away.  These  changes  in  values  and  in  colors  are  due  to  what  is  called  aerial 
perspective,  —  the  combined  effect  of  distance  and  of  the  atmosphere.  Again, ' 
in  our  picture  we  notice  that  the  shapes  of  the  boats  and  the  sails  are  not 
alike,  although  for  our  purpose  the  sketch  was  planned  to  show  several  sail- 
boats which  in  reality  were  exactly  alike.  The  difference  in  their  shapes,  as 
shown  in  the  sketch,  is  due  to  the  different  positions  in  which  they  are  . 
placed  with  relation  to  the  observer.  We  see,  then,  that  in  making  a  draw- 
ing in  perspective,  we  must  consider  both  the  distances  of  objects  from  us 
and  their  positions  in  relation  to  us.  Another  very  noticeable  effect  of  per- 
spective is  shown,  in  the  direction  of  the  rails  in  the  railroad.  These  are 
parallel  in  reality,  but  they  do  not  appear  so  in  our  sketch.  The  rails  seem 
to  approach  one  another  as  they  recede  from  the  eye,  until  finally  they  con- 
verge at  one  point. 

In  our  picture  the  stretch  of  land  and  the  surface  of  the  lake  represent 
a  horizontal  plane,  which,  when  seen  at  the  oblique  angle  which  its  position 
in  relation  to  the  eye  establishes,  appears  less  wide  than  it  really  is.  When  I 
a  surface,  because  of  its  position,  appears  narrower  than  it  really  is,  it  is  said 
to  hQ.foresJiortcned.  The  principle  of  foreshortening  is  the  simplest  and  most 
obvious  principle  of  perspective,  for  we  see  surfaces  foreshortened  more  fre- 
quently than  we  see  them  in  their  true  shape. 

Deductions.  From  the  study  of  a  scene  such  as  that  represented  we 
are  able  to  make  the  following  deductions,  which  are  governing  principles  in 
the  representation  of  objects  :  — 

a.  Surfaces  wJieii  viewed  obliquely  appear  foreshortened. 

b.  Distance  affects  the  apparent  sice  of  objects. 

c.  Distance  affects  the  apparent  color  of  objects. 

d.  Position  affects  the  apparent  form  of  objects. 

e.  Parallel  Tines,  receding  from  the  eye,  appear  to  converge. 

The  Foreshortened  Circle.  A  circular  face  or  shape,  when  held  in 
different  positions,  illustrates  the  effect  of  perspective  in  a  very  clear  and 
interesting  way.  Fig.  i  shows  a  hoop  which  is  held  or  suspended  directly 
in  front  of  the  observer,  giving  a  full-face  view  of  its  outline.  The  shape  of 
the  view  is,  of  course,  a  circle.  If  the  hoop  is  held  in  a  vertical  plane  so 
that  its  rim  or  edge  is  exactly  opposite  the  eye-level,  its   appearance  will 


ART  EDUCATION-^ HIGH  SCHOOL 

be  represented  by  a  vertical  line  (Fig.  2).  (The  thick- 
ness of  the  rim  of  the  hoop  does  not  affect  the  prin- 
ciple illustrated.)  If  the  hoop  is  held  in  a  horizontal 
plane  opposite  the  eye-level,  its  appearance  is  a  hori- 
zontal line  (Fig.  3).  If  the  hoop  is  raised  or  lowered 
slightly  the  appearance  is  an  ellipse  (Figs.  4  and  5), 
and  the  width  of  the  ellipse  from  front  to  back  appar- 
ently increases  as  the  hoop  is  moved  farther  above  or 
farther  below  the  eye.  If  the  hoop  is  suspended  in  a 
vertical  plane,  and  placed  at  the  right  or  left  of  the 
eye,  its  outline  appears  as  an  ellipse  whose  long  axis 
is  vertical,  and  the  width  of  the  ellipse,  measured  by 
the  short  axis,  increases  with  the  distance  of  the  hoop 
to  the  right  or  left  (Fig.  6). 

When  objects  whose  bases  are  circles,  such  as 
cylindric  objects,  bowls,  jars,  vases,  etc.,  are  seen  below 
the  eye,  so  that  the  circular  faces  are  neither  directly 
under  nor  directly  opposite  the  eye,  the  lower  ellipse 
appears  wider  than  the  upper  one,  for  the  reason 
already  explained.  In  preliminary  practice  it  is  well 
to  sketch  in  light  line  the  whole  curve  of  an  ellipse 
when  but  half  of  its  outline  is  seen  (Figs.  7  and  8). 

The  student  should  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  principle  of  the  foreshortened  circle,  and 
should  draw  many  objects  illustrating  it,  working  both 
from  the  object  and  from  memory  or  imagination. 

Exercise  I.  Draw,  from  the  object,  a  glass  half 
filled  with  water,  placed  so  that  the  upper  edge  is 
slightly  below  the  level  of  the  eye. 

Exercise  II.  Draw,  from  the  object,  a  lamp- 
shade above  the  level  of  the  eye. 

Exercise  III.  Draw,  from  the  object,  a  cup  and 
saucer  in  their  usual  positions. 

Exercise  IV.  (a)  Draw,  without  the  object,  a 
vertical  cylinder  with  the  lower  face  on  a  level  with 


PERSPECTIVE 


37 


the  eye ;  (b)  with  the  upper  face  on  a  level 
with  the  eye;  {c)  with  the  lower  face  held 
slightly  above  the  level  of  the  eye ;  (d)  with 
the  middle  of  the  curved  face  on  a  level  with 
the  eye. 

From  the  study  of  the  foreshortened 
circle  we  are  able  to  make  the  following 
deductions  :  — 

a.  A  face  view  of  a  circle  is  ahvays  a 
circle. 

b.  An  edge  vieiv  of  a  circle  is  always  a 
straight  line. 

c.  A  circle  seen  obliquely  always  ap- 
pears as  an  ellipse. 

d.  The  more  obliquely  the  circle  is  see?t 
the  narrozver  the  ellipse  appears,  —  the  more 
nearly  it  approaches  a  straight  like. 

e.  The  less  obliquely  the  circle  is  seen 
the  wider  the  ellipse  appears,  —  tJie  moi'e 
nearly  it  approaches  a  circle. 

The  Effect  of  Distance.  The  farther 
an  object  is  placed  from  the  observer  the 
smaller  it  appears.  This  is  easily  discerned 
when  we  look  at  objects  in  the  landscape, 
where  the  distance  is  great  enough  to  make 
the  difference  in  size  very  apparent.  The 
law  holds  good,  however,  when  the  distance 
is  slight,  and  it  may  be  easily  demonstrated  : 
hold  two  12"  rulers  in  a  vertical  position, 
directly  in  front  of  you,  so  that  their,  edges 
touch  throughout  their  entire  length.  The 
rulers  in  this  position,  and  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  the  eye,  appear  to  be  the  same 
size.  Now  move  the  right  ruler  slowly 
away  from  you,  keeping  the  ruler  at  the  left 


iscr— IT:)! 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Stationary.  The  difference  in  the  appar- 
ent length  will  be  readily  seen,  and  can  be 
measured  upon  the  nearer  ruler  (Figs.  9 
and  10). 

To  demonstrate  this  principle  in 
another  way,  place  two  objects  of  the 
same  size  on  a  table  or  shelf  in  front  of 
you,  so  that  either  the  tops  or  the  bottoms 
of  the  objects  are  on  the  level  of  the  eye. 
Move  one  object  twice  as  far  from  you  as 
the  other.  Test  the  apparent  height  of 
both,  and  you  will  find  that  the  farther  one 
appears  one-half  the  height  and  width  of 
the  nearer  object.  If  one  object  is  four 
times  as  far  away  as  another,  it  appear- 
but  one-fourth  as  high  and  wide ;  if  teii 
times  as  far  away,  it  appears  but  one- 
tenth  the  height  and  width  of  the  nearer 
object  (Figs.  11  and  12). 

Place  objects  against  or  partly  be- 
hind each  other,  and  testing  with  the 
pencil  held  at  arm's  length,  compare  the 
apparent  size  of  objects  placed  at  different 
distances  from  the  eye.  Notice  how  the 
apparent  difference  in  size  is  demonstrated 
in  the  photograph  of  the  corn-shocks  (Fig. 

13)- 

The  device  of  the  rulers  serves  also 

to  illustrate  the  principle  of  foreshorten- 
ing. Place  the  two  rulers  together  in  a  horizontal  position  on  a  level  with 
the  eye  and  directly  in  front  of  you.  Hold  the  left  ends  together  with  the 
left  hand,  and  with  the  right  hand  swing  the  upper  ruler  away  from  you, 
keeping  the  under  ruler  stationary.  The  apparent  decrease  in  the  length  of 
the  upper  ruler,  as  measured  on  the  under  ruler,  proves  that  lines  and  surfaces 
are  foreshortened  as  they  are  turned  away  from  the  eye  (Figs.  14  and  15). 


PERSPECTIVE 


39 


The  Horizon  Line,  or  Eye-Level.  If  you  stand  upon  the  shore  of 
the  sea  or  of  a  large  lake  and  look  across  the  surface  of  the  water  it  appears 
to  rise  as  it  recedes,  until  it  reaches,  in  the  distance,  the  level  of  the  eye. 
If  you  should  climb  to  the  top  of  a  cliff  and  look  again  across  the  water, 
its  surface  would  still  appear  to  rise  until  it  reached  the  higher  level  which 
your  eyes  had  attained  in  that  elevated  position.  This  distant  level,  where 
the  earth  and  sky  seem  to  meet,  is  called  the  line  of  the  horizon,  or  the  eye- 
level,  and  upon  this  level  all  horizontal  planes  or  lines  vanish.  The  floor 
and  the  ceiling  of  a  room  are  horizontal  planes  receding  from  the  eye,  and 
if  extended,  they  would  vanish  in  the  horizon  line. 

Note  :  The  horizon  line  must  not  be  confused  with  the  sky-line,  which  is  the  line  made  by 
masses,  such  as  hills,  trees,  houses,  etc.,  cutting  against  the  sky.  Except  on  a  level  plane  the 
horizon  line  is  not  visible ;  the  sky-line  is  always  visible. 

As  all  horizontal 
lines  receding  from  the 
eye  must  vanish  in  the 
horizon  line,  those  below 
the  eye  appear  to  slant 
upward  as  they  recede, 
and  those  above  the  eye 
seem  to  slant  downward, 
and  if  these  receding 
lines  are  parallel  they 
will  seem  to  converge 
to  a  point  upon  the 
horizon  line. 

Convergence.  No 
line  can   appear   longer 


40 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


than  it  really  is,  but  under  certain 
conditions  it  appears  shorter,  as 
has-been  demonstrated.  A  verti- 
cal line  may  be  seen  directly  in 
front  of  the  eye,  or  it  may  be  seen 
above,  below,  to  the  right  or  to  the 
left  of  the  eye,  but  its  apparent 
length  depends  upon  its  distance 
from  the  observer,  and  its  per- 
spective representation,  for  all 
artistic  or  pictorial  work,  is  always 
vertical.  All  other  straight  lines 
may,  under  certain  conditions, 
appear  as  "retreating"  or  "van- 
ishing" lines.  In  the  colored 
sketch  already  referred  to,  the 
railroad  tracks  are  receding  from 
us,  and,  although  we  know  that  in 
reality  they  are  par- 
allel, they  appear 
to  converge,  and  if 
they  were  extended 
over  a  level  plane 
we  would  see  that 
they  would  con. 
verge  to  a  point  on 
the  horizon  line  and 
would  vanish  in  that 
point.  This  princi- 
ple is  demonstrated 
in  the  horizontal 
lines  of  buildings, 
in  street  scenes,  in 
room  interiors  and 
in    roadways    and 


PERSPECTIVE 


sidewalks.  In  small  objects  the  con- 
vergence of  lines  is  not  so  apparent, 
but  we  can  establish  proof  that  it 
exists.  Lay  a  book  upon  a  table, 
with  the  back  directly  in  front  of  you. 
Under  the  cover  of  the  book  place  a 
string  long  enough  so  that  both  its 
ends  may  be  held  in  one  hand  so  as 
to  hide  from  your  vision  the  retreating 
horizontal  edges  of  the  cover  (Fig.  i6). 
The  two  ends  of  the  string  are  seen 
to  converge,  thus  indicating  the  true  appearance  of  the  ends  of  the  book  in 
this  position.  In  Fig.  i6  two  of  the  four  horizontal  edges  in  the  top  of  the 
book  are  parallel  to  the  horizon  line  of  the  observer  and  do  not  seem  to 
change  their  direction.  It  is  only  receding  horizontal  lines  that  seem  to  con- 
verge, and  which,  if  extended,  would  meet  in  a  point  upon  the  horizon  line.. 
The  student  should  draw  from  many  objects  illustrating  the  convergence 


42 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


A 

2 

B.' 

^>'                    ,'                                              ^\ 

\E 

, 

r                                 1                                       ....    , , 

K 

\\ 

t            .'                                       1 

// 

\       8 

of  retreating  horizontal 
edges.  Two  rulers  or  two 
strips  of  stiff  paper  may- 
be used  to  test  angles  after 
the  sketch  is  made,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  17. 

Parallel  Perspec- 
tive. When  rectilinear 
objects  are  placed  so  that 
one  set  of  lines  is  vertical, 
another  set  is  parallel  with 
the  observer's  horizon,  and 
another  set  is  horizontal 
and  receding,  converging 
to  a  point  upon  the  hori- 
zon directly  opposite  the 
eye,  as  in  Figs.  16,  17  and 
18,  they  are  said  to  be  in  parallel,  or  one  point  perspective.  In  Fig.  18, 
which  is  a  photograph  of  a  railway  station,  it  is  seen  that  the  vertical  lines 
of  all  the  buildings,  of  the  telegraph  pole,  and  of  the  freight  cars  remain 
vertical ;  all  horizontal  lines  that  are  parallel  ^vith  the  horizon  remain  hori- 
zontal ;  while  the  receding  horizontal  lines,  such  as  the  rails,  the  ridge  and 
eaves  of  the  roofs,  etc.,  all  tend  toward  the  same  point  in  the  horizon  line. 

To  Determine  the  Vanishing  Point  in  Parallel  Perspective.  The 
vanishing  point  for  converging  Hues  may  be  determined  by  simply  producing 
the  lines  until  they  meet.  An  interesting  device  for  demonstrating  this  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  19,  and  is  worked  out  as  follows  :  Sit  in  front  of  a  table 
or  desk,  and  at  the  two  nearer  corners  hold  two  rulers  in  a  vertical  position, 
as  at  A  and  A,  Fig.  19.  Observe  the  top  of  the  table  as  seen  between  the 
rulers,  and  then  incHne  them  until  they  hide  from  your  sight  the  ends  of  the 
table,  as  at  B  and  B.  If  the  rulers,  in  this  position,  could  be  extended,  they 
would  meet  at  a  point  opposite  and  on  a  level  with  the  eye.  If  you  should 
imagine  this  done,  and  should  fix  a  point  on  the  wall  beyond  the  table,  locat- 
ing the  point  at  which  they  would  meet,  as  at  VP,  you  would  find  the  van- 
ishing point  for  all  of  the  receding  horizontal  lines  in  the  table.     A  ruler 


PERSPECTIVE 


43 


held  so  that  it  hides  from  your  sight  a  line  connecting  the  bottom  of  the 
legs,  as  at  C,  will  slant  toward  the  vanishing  point,  VP,  as  shown  in  the 
sketch. 

Again  :  Stand  with  your  back  against  the  wall  of  a  long,  narrow  room 
and  look  toward  the  opposite  wall,  assuming  a  point  on  the  wall  exactly 
opposite  your  eye.  With  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  left  hand  hold  a  string 
in  a  vertical  position  so  that  the  thumb  that  holds  it  hides  the  assumed 
vanishing  point.  The  string  in  this  position  hides  from  your  sight  the  crack 
in  the  floor  upon  which  you  are  standing ;  that  is,  the  crack,  which  is  a  hori- 
zontal line  receding  from  the  eye,  appears  as  a  vertical  line.  Holding  the 
thumb  in  the  same  position,  take  the  other  end  of  the  string  in  the  right 
hand  and  swing  it  to  the  right.  You  can  then  hide  with  the  string  the  lower 
line  of  the  base-board  (Fig.  20),  and  by  moving  the  string  you  can  cover 
the  upper  and  lower  lines  of  windows,  doors,  blackboards,  picture  frames, 
the  upper  line  of  the  wall,  or  any  horizontal  edge  or  line  that  is  receding 
from  you.     The  upper  end  of  the  string  may  be  held  in  place  with  the  right 


44 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


IB 

^^z^^i ^ 

ii 

^^/^^^/ i  ^^^^Jli 

-'■■%. 

■pK^^y^  /  'A    ^^^S 

fe^^^i 

Bridge  across  the  Mississippi  River  at  Thebes,  III. 
Fig.  21 

hand  and  the  same  experiments  made  with  the  hnes  at  the  left.  An  interest- 
ing illustration  of  parallel  perspective  is  shown  in  the  photograph  of  the 
bridge  (Fig.  21). 

Exercise  V.    Find  the  vanishing  point  in  the  picture  (Fig.  22). 

Exercise  VI.  Draw  in  parallel  perspective  an  outline  sketch  of  a  book ; 
a  checker-board  ;  a  table  ;  a  chair  ;  a  strawberry  box  ;  a  bookcase. 

Note.  If  the  student  will  place  any  object  behind  a  vertical  pane  of  glass  or  a  fine  wire 
screen  and  trace  upon  this  plane  the  outlines  of  the  object,  he  will  have  a  correct  drawing  of  its 
appearance,  which  will  help  him  to  understand  the  principles  of  perspective. 

Exercise  VII.  Make  a  sketch  similar  in  character  to  Fig.  22,  from  your 
observation  of  a  street  or  railroad. 

Deductions.     From  the  foregoing  the  following  deductions  are  made  :  — 

a.  All  parallel  Jiorizontal  edges  receding  from  tlie  eye  appear  to  converge. 

b.  All  receding  Jiorizontal  edges  appear  to  incline  toivard  the  level  of 
the  eye. 


PERSPECTIVE 


46 


■^        fF         <?? 


.'.  «  .^.^K 


TX'  ?/1^^ 


X 


c.  All  parallel  horizontal  edges  receding  from  the  eye  appear  to  converge 
to  a  point  on  the  level  of  the  eye,  and  if  produced  will  meet  in  a  point  on  the 
horizon  line,  or  eye-level. 

d.  Any  horizontal  plane,  zvhen  seen  above  or  beloiv  the  eye,  appears 
foreshortened. 

e.  All  planes  vievoed  obliquely  appear  foreshortcfied. 

f.  The  farther  of  two  edges  that  are  parallel  with  the  observer  s  horizon 
appears  shorter  than  the  nearer  edge,  owing  to  the  convergence  of  receding 
parallel  horizontal  edges  {Fig.  2J). 

Angular  Perspective.  When  a  rectangular  object  is  seen  cornerwise, 
so  that  its  vertical  faces  appear  foreshortened,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  24,  it  is 
said  to  be  in  angular  perspective.     Under  these  conditions,  there  are  two 


46 


ART  EDUCATION  —  HIGH  SCHOOL 


VP 


sets  of  retreating  horizontal  edges,  and 
their  vanishing  points  may  be  found 
by  continuing  the  lines  of  these  edges 
until  they  meet.  Fig.  25  shows  a 
photograph  of  a  building  taken  -at  an 
angle.  The  receding  lines  are  seen 
to  converge  in  two  different  directions. 
Those  on  the  left  of  the  near  corner 
converge  to  the  left,  and  those  on  the 
right  of  the  near  corner  converge  to 
the  right.  If  these  lines  were  ex- 
tended, they  would  meet  respectively 
in  two  points,  and  these  points  would 
both  be  located  upon  the  horizon 
line.  The  student  should  demonstrate 
this  principle  by  locating,  with  the 
^''^"  ^^  string  device  or  by  some  other  means, 

the  horizon  line  and  vanishing  points  in  buildings  that  he  sees  at  an  angle, 
and  he  should  make  these  tests  from  different  points  of  view  and  from 
different  elevations. 

The  observation  tower  shown  in  Fig.  26  illustrates  in  an  interesting 
and  definite  way  the  changes  that  occur  in  the  inclination  of  horizontal 
retreating  lines  at  different  levels.  In  making  this  sketch,  the  artist 
ascended  another  high  tower  in  the  vicinity  and  looked  out  upon  the  plat- 
form that  is  marked  A  in  the  sketch.  The  platform  was  exactly  opposite 
the  level  of  his  eyes  and  was,  of  course,  on  a  line  with  the  distant  horizon. 
He  saw  no  width  from  front  to  back  upon  this  platform  ;  the  people,  the 
stairways,  the  railing,  the  four  corners,  all  seemed  to  be  resting  upon  a 
horizontal  line.  The  platform  immediately  below  appeared  in  the  shape  of  a 
long,  narrow  diamond,  with  its  outlines  slanting  very  slightly  upward,  the 
opposite  sides  inclining  toward  two  different  vanishing  points  upon  the  eye 
level.  The  next  platform  below  appeared  wider,  with  a  greater  inclination 
of  its  edges,  and  the  lowest  platform  that  the  artist  could  see  showed  in  its 
outlines  a  greatly  increased  degree  of  inclination.  The  highest  platform  of 
all    and   the    roof    of  the  tower  showed  that  the  apparent  inclination  was 


PERSPECTIVE 


47 


1^ 


2^ 


^• 


liiiiiHil""' 
iin«  III   i 


reversed,  —  the  edges  slanted  down  instead  of  up,  although  they  still  sought 
the  same  vanishing  points  on  the  horizon  line  at  the  right  and  left  of  the 
observer. 

Objects  at  45  Degrees.  In  making  the  sketch  of  the  tower  the  artist 
was  so  located  that  he  saw  the  structure  very  nearly  at  an  angle  of  45°.  At 
45°  the  degree  of  inclination  of  the  right  and  left  retreating  edges  is  equal- 
We  often  see  rectangular  objects  at  some  other  angle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27. 
When  this  is  so,  the  inclination  of  the  edges  on  the  right  and  left  sides  is 
not  equal ;  the  side  that  is  turned  away  more  will  show  the  greater  inclina- 
tion and  the  greater  foreshortening.  This  should  be  demonstrated  by  the 
observation  and  drawing  of  many  objects  similar  to  those  shown  in  Fig.  28. 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

The  student  should 
bear  in  mind  the  fact  that 
when  converging  lines 
which  represent  retreating 
horizontal  edges  are  pro- 
duced until  they  meet,  all 
lines  that  are  parallel  with 
them  will  meet  at  the  same 
points,  and  that  these  points 
will  be  on  the  same  eye^ 
level. 

Study   of  the    Open 
Door.     The  drawing  of  an 
open  door  is  an  interesting 
exercise,  as    it    requires    a 
knowledge  of  the  principles 
of  angular  perspective.     A 
careful  drawing  should  be 
made,  studying  the  problem 
in   the  following   manner: 
Sit  in  front  of  a  door  that 
opens  outward  or  away  from 
you,  as  shown  in  Fig.  29. 
Sketch  first  the  casing  an  ' 
note  the  apparent  width  of 
the  door  in  relation  to  the 
width  of  the  opening.    You 
will  observe  that  the  top  of 
the  door  appears   to  slant 
downward    from   the    near 
corner  and  that  the  bottom 
Fig.  26  sccms    to    slaut     upward. 

Sketch  the  outlines  of  the  door.  Now  imagine  the  retreating  lines  at  the 
top  and  bottom  of  the  door  to  be  extended  until  they  meet.  This  pomt  will 
be  upon  the  level  of  your  eyes,  and  at  the  left  of  your  point  of  view.     Open 


PERSPECTIVE 


49 


":^'. 


,,-«*^-  •     '      *         — -••>-«^ 


the  door  a  little  more  and  study  the  effect  upon  the  inclination  of  the  top 
and  bottom  edges.  It  will  be  found  that  the  vanishing  point  changes 
according  to  the  angle  at  which  the  door  stands,  and  that  the  degree  of 
inclination  changes  in  like  proportion.  ,  Make  a  similar  test  with  the  door 
nearly  closed.  The  nearer  shut  the  door,  the  less  will  be  the  inclination  of 
the  top  and  bottom  edges,  and  the  farther  away  will  be  the  vanishing  point, 
biit  this  point  will  always  be  on  the  eye-level. 

Make  a  similar  study  from  a  door  opening  toward  you  (Fig.  30).     It 
will  be  well  to  sketch  the  same  door  several  times,  until  you  can  make  an 


60 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


accurate  drawing  of  its  appearance  without  testing,  depending  upon  your 
eyes,  your  sense  of  proportion,  and  your  knowledge  of  perspective  principles. 
Turned  Cylindric  and  Conical  Objects.  The  principles  of  fore- 
shortening and  convergence  enter  into  the  representation  of  objects  based  in 
their  construction  upon  the  cylinder  and  the  cone.  In  Fig..  31  the  cylinders 
are  represented  as  lying  in  a  horizontal  plane  and  turned  at  an  angle,  so  that 
the  near  end  appears  as  a  foreshortened  circle,  or  ellipse.  The  outlines  of 
the  curved  surface  become  retreating  horizontal  lines  and  show  convergence, 


as  the  lines  of  a  rectangular  box  would  do  in  a  similar  position.  In  drawing 
an  upright  cylinder,  the  straight  lines  of  the  sides  seem  to  pass  into  the  curve 
of  the  ellipse  at  the  ends  of  its  long  diameter,  forming  a  tangential  union, 
(When  a  straight  line  passes  without  any  perceptible  change  into  a  curve, 
the  union  is  called  tangential.)  The  axis  of  a  right  cylinder  or  a  cone  is 
always  at  right  angles  to  the  long  diameter  of  the  base,  and  this  is  true 
when  the  object  is  turned  as  well  as  when  it  is  upright,  or  when  its  axis  is 
parallel  with  the  horizon  line.     When  the  cone  is  seen  below  the  eye,  as  in 


PERSPECTIVE 


51 


Fig.  32,  the  straight  hnes  (which  are  obhque)  appear  to  form  a  tangential 
union  with  the  curve  of  the  elHpse,  not  at  the  ends  of  its  long  diameter,  but 
a  little  farther  back,  and  this  is  true  of  the  turned  horizontal  cylinder  as 
well,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31.     The  fuller  or  broader  the  elHpse  of  the  base  of 


52 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


\X 


^      _   _     _ !^ 


the  cone,  the  farther  back  from 
the  ends  of  the  long  diameter 
will  this  union  seem  to  be.  Fig. 
33  makes  this  clear. 

Exercise  VIII.  D  r  a  w  a 
flower-pot  lying  on  its  side  and 
turned  at  an  angle.  Sketch  its 
axis  and  both  diameters  of  both 
ellipses. 

Exercise  IX.  Draw  a 
music  roll  turned  at  an  angle, 
lying  on  a  horizontal  surface. 

Exercise  X.  Sketch  lightly 
one  or  two  parsnips  or  carrots 
turned  at  an  angle,  and  lying  on 
a  horizontal  surface. 

Oblique  Perspective. 
When  an  object  is  in  such  a  posi- 
tion that  all  or  a  part  of  its  hori- 
zontal edges  are  oblique  to  the 
ground,  as  illustrated  in  the 
cover  of  the  box  shown  in  Fig. 
34,  it  is  said  to  be  in  oblique 
v^  perspective.  In  the  box  cover, 
the  retreating  edges  are  slanting 
and  parallel,  and  they  seem  to 
converge  and  to  vanish  in  points 
above  or  below  the  eye-level  at 
a  distance  proportionate  to  the 
inclination  of  the  edges.  The 
exact  location  of  such  points 
may  be  found,  if  desired,  by  the 
following  procedure:  Place  a 
large  box  with  a  hinged  cover 
directly  in  front  of  you,  below 
your  horizon  line.     Draw  it  first 


PERSPECTIVE 


53 


in  parallel  perspective  with  the  hinged  edge  toward  you  and  the  cover  shut 
(Fig.  35).  As  you  know,  the  retreating  horizontal  edges  will  appear  to 
vanish  in  the  horizon  line.  Raise  the  cover  at  an  oblique  angle  (Fig.  36) 
atid  again  draw  the  box.  You  will  find  that  the  vanishing  point  for  the 
retreating  edges  is  directly  above  the  vanishing  point  for  the  same  lines 
when  they  were  horizontal  (O.V.P.,  Fig.  36).  Turn  the  box  so  that 
the  hinged  edge  is  at  the  back,  and  slightly  raise  the  cover  (Fig.  37). 
Sketch  the  box  in  this  position,  and  you  will  see  that  the  vanishing  point 
for  the  oblique  lines  is  directly  below  the  vanishing  point  for  the  same  edges 
in  a  horizontal  position.     Now  turn  the  box  at  an  angle  and  slightly  raise 


54 


ART  EDUCA7 ION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


the  cover,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
38.  The  retreating //^r/^^w/rt/ 
edges  appear  to  vanish  in  the 
horizon  line,  and  the  retreat- 
ing oblique  edges  at  the  ends 
of  the  cover  appear  to  vanish 
in  a  point  directly  above  the 
vanishing  point  for  the  hori- 
zontal edges  with  which  these 
oblique  edges  were  parallel 
before  the  cover  was  raised. 
The  short  oblique  edges  that 
show  the  thickness  of  the 
cover  seem  to  vanish  in  a  point 
directly  below  in  O.V.P.^. 
The  reason  for  this  will  be 
clear,  when  you  remember  the 
principle  already  established — 
that  receding  parallel  planes 
vanish  in  a  line.  V.V.L., 
Fig.  38,  is  the  vanishing  line 
for  the  vertical  planes  in 
which  the  ends  of  the  box 
cover  lie.  Therefore,  all  lines 
lying  in  those  planes  will 
vanish  in  that  line. 

We  often  find  parts  of 
buildings,  .such  as  slanting 
roofs  and  dormer  windows,  in 
oblique  perspec.tive.  In  Fig. 
39,  the  ends  of  the  barn  and 
the  ends  of  the  house  are  in 
vertical  planes  which  are  par- 
allel to  each  other.  These 
planes    vanish    in    a   vertical 


66 


:U-^x^^A>^fg.ipb--:.  -^^  /   I  _ 


/ 


vanishing  line  (V.  V.  L).  All  lines  lying  in  these  planes  will  vanish  in 
certain  points  on  the  vertical  vanishing  line.  Figs.  40,  41,  42  and  43  illus- 
trate how  vanishing  points  for  various  parallel  oblique  edges  may  be  located. 


ART  EDUCATION  —  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Deductions.  From  the  fore- 
going, these  additional  deductions 
may  be  made : 

a.  Parallel  horizontal  edges 
receding  to  the  left  appear  to  con- 
verge to  a  point  on  the  eye-level  at 
the  left  of  the  object ;  those  receding 
to  the  right  appear  to  converge  to 
the  rig  Jit  of  the  object. 

b.  When  rectangular  objects 
are  standing  with  their  side  faces 
turned  equally  away,  the  vanishing 
points  are  equidistant  from  the 
object;  but  zuhcn  their  side  faces 
are  tjirned  unequally  aivay,  the  two 
vanishing  points  are  unequally  dis- 
tant from  the  object,  according  to 
the  angle  at  zvhich  the  object 
stands. 

c.  Farther  vertical  edges  ap- 
pear shorter  than   nearer  vertical 

edges,  although  in  reality  they  may 
all  be  of  equal  length. 

d.  Receding  parallel  planes, 
if  produced,  appear  to  vanish  in  a 
line. 

e.  Receding  horizontal  planes 
vanish  in  a  Jiorizo^ital  line  on  a 
leugl  with  the  eye,  called  the  eye- 
level   {E.  L.),  the   horizontal  line 

{H.  L.),  or  the  horizontal  vanishing  line  {H.   V.  L.). 

f.  All  lines  lying  in  the  same  plane,  or  in  parallel  planes,  vanish  in  the 
same  straight  line. 

To  Find  Perspective  Centers.  As  objects  or  parts  of  objects  appear 
smaller  in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  eye,  the  perspective  centers 


.^^ 

/i\ 

mm 

] 

i 

PERSPECTIVE 


of  the  foreshortened  planes  will 
appear  a  little  beyond  the  geo- 
metric centers. 

In  Fig.  44  the  top  of  the 
gable  and  the  center  of  the  door 
or  the  window  are  a  little  beyond 
the  center  of  the  end  and  side 
of  the  barn.  To  test  this,  draw 
the  diagonals  of  the  rectangles 
as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

The  altitude  of  a  pyramid 
is  obtained  in  the  same  way 
(Fig.  45).  The  apex  will  be 
directly  over  the  perspective 
center  of  the  base. 

The  long  diameters  of  two 
concentric  circles  will  not  appear 
in    the    same    line.       The    long 
diameter  of  the  inner  ellipse  is  a 
little  above  the  diameter  of  the 
outer  ellipse,  as  shown   in  Fig. 
46,     which    was     photographed 
from  a  drawing  of  two  concentric 
circles.     The 
diameters    ab 
and   cd  were 
drawn  on  the 
photograph. 

Because 
the  farther 
half  of  a  sur- 
face  seen 
obliquely  ap- 
pears shorter 
than    the 


68  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

nearer  half,  it  is  sometimes  thought  that  the  farther  half  of  an  ellipse  (the 
appearance  of  a  circle  seen  obliquely)  should  be  drawn  narrower  than  the 
nearer  half.     That  a  circle  seen  obliquely  appears  as    a  perfect  ellipse   is 


shown  by  the  photographs  (Figs.  46  and  47),  which  were  taken  from  draw- 
ings of  circles. 

It  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  47  that  the  diameter  ef,  of  the  circle,  which  is 
also  the  diameter  of  the  square,  does  not  remain  the  long  diameter  of  the 


ellipse.  The  line  gh,  which  is  the  long  diameter  of  the  ellipse,  was  drawn 
through  the  exact  center  of  the  ellipse  on  the  photograph.  The  two  halves 
are  exactly  alike. 


PERSPECTIVE 


59 


Mechanical  Perspective 

We  have  seen  that  freehand  perspective  is  largely  a  matter  of  the  close 
observation  of  objects  as  they  appear  under  different  aspects  and  conditions. 
We  come  now  to  the  study  of  the  theory  of  perspective,  in  which  the  prin- 
ciples deduced  from  our  study  of  objects  are  proved  by  scientific  methods. 
In  mechanical  perspective  certain  conventions  are  assumed  which  must  first 
be  explained. 

Conventions.  Imagine  a  sheet  of  glass  to  be  standing  in  an  upright 
position  before  you,  through  which  you  can  see  the  various  objects  in  the 
room.  This  glass  extends,  in  imagination,  from  the  floor  to  the  ceiling,  and 
from  side  to  side  of  the  room.  A  plane  such  as  the  glass  represents  is  called 
the  Picture  Plane  (P.P.).  The  edge  that  rests  on  the  floor  represents  the 
Ground  Line  (G.L.).  The  position  of  your  eye  represents  the  Station  Point 
(S.P.),  and  is  always  located  at  a  given  distance  from  the  Picture  Plane. 
The  direction  in  which  you  are  looking,  represented  by  an  imaginary  line 
drawn  from  your  eye  to  a  point  on  the  Picture  Plane  exactly  opposite  your 
eye,  is  called  the  Line  of  Direction  (L.D.).  The  point  opposite  your  eye,  on 
the  Picture  Plane,  is  called  the  Center  of  Vision  (C.V.),  A  horizontal  line 
passing  through  the  Center  of  Vision  is  called  the  Horizon  Line  (H.L.). 

When  we  look  at  a  fixed  point  before  us,  our  vision  is  not  limited  to 
the  point  alone,  but  we  see,  more  or  less  clearly,  a  certain  field  or  area  sur- 
rounding the  point.  This  area  is  the  field  of  vision,  and  its  extent  may  be 
illustrated  as  follows  :  place  the  palms 
of  your  hands  together  and  extend  your 
arms  directly  before  you.  Look  fixedly 
at  some  point  opposite  your  eyes.  Con- 
tinuing to  gaze  at  this  point,  slowly  open 
your  extended  arms.  You  will  observe 
■  that  you  can  see  your  hands  less  and 
less  distinctly  as  they  move  away  from 
the  point  upon  which  your  gaze  is  fixed, 
until  finally  the  hands  disappear  from 
sight.  The  points  at  which  your  hands 
disappear  mark  the  limits  of  your  field  of 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


vision  and  these  points  are  reached 
when  the  arms  are  at  an  angle  of 
90°  to  each  other,  or  at  45®  with 
your  Line  of  Direction.  The 
field  of  vision,  then,  is  the  area 
measured  by  lines  drawn  from  the 
Station  Point  at  an  angle  of  45° 
with  the  Line  of  Direction.  The 
points  at  which  these  lines  meet 
the  Horizon  Line  are  called 
Distance  Points  (D.P.).  These 
Fi«-  *^  Distance  Points  are  used  as  meas- 

uring points  for  certain  lines,  as  will  be  shown  later.     (Fig.  48.) 

The  Relationship  of  Planes.  In  mechanical  perspective  we  find  that 
the  two  most  important  planes  are  the  Picture  Plane  (the  vertical  plane  upon 
which  the  picture  is  drawn)  and  the  Ground  Plane  (an  imaginary  level  plane 
of  infinite  extent,  some  distance  below  the  level  of  the  eye,  upon  which  the 
object  to  be  represented  and  the  observer  are  supposed  to  stand).  In  Fig. 
49,  Plane  A  is  the  Picture  Plane ;  C  and  B  represent  the  Ground  Plane ; 
the  observer  stands  on  one  side  of  the  Picture  Plane,  at  S.P.,  and  E  repre- 
sents the  position  of  the  eye.  The  province  of  mechanical  perspective  is  to 
project  from  plans  or  views  of  an  object  a  mathematically  correct  perspective 
representation  of  that  object.  Part  C  of  the  Ground  Plane  (Fig,  49),  which 
is  behind  the  Picture  Plane,  is  used  to  draw  plans  upon,  and  from  these  plans 
the  perspective  representation  is  projected  upon  the  Picture  Plane.  It  is, 
therefore,  necessary  for  this  part  of  the  Ground  Plane  to  be  brought  into  the 
same  plane  with  the  Picture  Plane,  and  so  we  must  revolve  it  through  a 
quadrant  until  it  lies  over  or  above  the  Picture  Plane.  For  the  same  reason. 
Part  B  of  the  Ground  Plane  must  be  revolved  through  a  quadrant  until  it  lies 
below  the  Picture  Plane.  The  path  of  these  revolutions  is  shown  in  Fig.  50. 
Fig.  5  I  shows  the  arrangement  of  these  planes  as  they  must  appear  upon 
our  paper,  which  is  the  plane  upon  which  all  these  plans,  views  and  projec- 
tions must  be  drawn.  Fig.  52  shows  a  perspective  diagram,  and  Fig.  53 
shows  how  a  drawing  in  parallel  perspective  is  made  upon  the  diagram.  In 
all  problems  in  mechanical  perspective  there  is  one  invariable  rule  which 


PERSPECTIVE 


61 


.^^^J^^ 

. 

/ 

.f  :     .  ■ 

PLAN 

RP 
H.L. 

GL. 

c.v. 

S.R 

pp 

H.L.                                                « 

0 

j 

-grr 

Fig.  52 

must  be  followed  :  A II 
vicas7ireincnts  iniist  be 
viadc  upon  the  Picture 
Plane. 

Parallel  Perspec- 
tive. Parallel  or  one- 
point  perspective  refers 
to  that  position   of   the 

object  which  makes  use  of  only  one  Vanishing  Point,  and  this  Vanish- 
ing Point  is  also  the  Center  of  Vision.  In  parallel  perspective,  the  object 
stands  parallel  to  the  Picture  Plane,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  53.  Here,  two 
cubes  of  the  same  size  are  placed  so  that  their  faces  are  either  parallel  with 
or  perpendicular  to  the  Picture  Plane.     They  are  both  at  the  left  of  the 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


S.P 


Fig.  53 

really  is.     The  vertical  lines  remain 


Line  of  Direc- 
tion (L.D.).  One 
is  placed  against 
the  Picture  Plane 
and  the  other  is 
some  distance 
behind  it. 

In  order  to 
make  a  perspec- 
tive drawing  that 
is  mechanically 
accurate,  it  is 
necessary  to  pro- 
ject all  points 
from  the  plan  to 
the  Picture 
Plane.  In  this 
case  A  and  B  are; 
the  respective 
plans  of  the 
cubes.  The 
nearest  face  of 
the  cube  is 
against  or  in  the 
Picture  Plane, 
and  will  be  shown 
in  its  actual  size 
and  shape.  The 
farther  face  of 
the  cube  will 
appear  in  the 
Picture  Plane  in 
its  true  shape, 
vertical   and  the 


but  smaller  than  it 

horizontal  lines  that  are  parallel  with  the  Picture  Plane  remain  horizontal. 


PERSPECTIVE  6ii 

The  other  faces  of  the  cube  are  seen  obliquely  and  will  not  appear  in  their 
true  shape  but  will  be  foreshortened,  and  their  horizontal  retreating  lines  will 
vanish  in  the  Center  of  Vision,  The  apparent  width  of  the  faces  is  deter- 
mined by  drawing  lines  from  points  on  the  plans  to  the  Station  Point. 
Where  these  lines  pierce  the  Picture  Plane  will  be  found  on  the  Picture 
Plane  the  apparent  width  of  the  foreshortened  faces  of  the  cube.  Projecting 
these  points  downward  gives  us  intersections  with  the  vanishing  lines  that 
converge  to  the  C.V.  For  example  :  lines  from  D  and  C  drawn  to  S.P. 
pierce  the  P.P.  at  points  E  and  F.  From  points  E  and  F,  lines  projected 
downward  until  they  intersect  the  Vanishing  Lines  from  L  and  M,  locate 
points  H,  I,  J,  and  K,  determining  the  foreshortened  face  G,  of  the  second 
cube.     The  other  foreshortened  faces  are  located  in  a  similar  way. 

In  order  to  make  a  correct  perspective  drawing  of  an  object,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  the  following  facts  :  — • 

a.  The  actual  sice  and  shape  of  the  object. 

b.  Its  distance  from,  and  relative  position  to,  the  Picture  Plane. 

c.  Its  distajice  from,  and  relative  position  to,  the  Line  of  Direction. 
'        d.    Its  distance  from,  and  relative  position  to,  the  Ground  Litie. 

e.  The  height  of  the  eye  above  the  Ground  Line  ;  this  height  also  fixes 
the  Horizon  Line. 

f.  The  distance  of  the  spectator  from  the  Picture  Plane ;  this  distance 
determines  the  Station  Point. 

g.  The  scale  of  ineasurem,ents  used. 

Angular  Perspective.  Angular,  or  two-point,  perspective  refers  to 
that  position  of  the  object  which  makes  use  of  two  vanishing  points,  located 
upon  the  Horizon  Line.  All  lines  parallel  with  the  Ground  Plane,  but  at 
any  other  angle  than  90°  to  the  Picture  Plane,  are  in  angular  perspective,  and 
their  vanishing  points  will  be  on  the  Horizon  Line,  but  not  in  the  Center  of 
Vision. 

An  object  in  angular  perspective  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  54.  A  square 
prism  is  placed  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  Picture  Plane,  some  distance  behind 
it  and  some  distance  to  the  right  of  the  Line  of  Direction,  its  top  view  or  plan 
being  represented  by  A.  In  drawing  the  diagram,  the  P.P.,  H.L.,  and  G.L. 
must  be  parallel.  The  L.D.  must  be  perpendicular  to  these  lines.  The 
distance  between  the   P.P.  and  the  H.L.  may  be  assumed,  and  the   S.P. 


64 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


PERSPECTIVE  65 

must  be  located  on  the  L.D.  at  an  assumed  distance  below  the  G.L.     The 
steps  in  working  out  the  problem  are  as  follows  :  — 

1.  Through  S.P.  draw  a  line  parallel  to  1-4,  cutting  P.P.  in  D.P.i. 

2.  Drop  a  perpendicular  from  D.P.  i  to  H.L.  establishing  the  point 
V.P.I.  This  is  the  vanishing  point  for  the  perspective  of  the  line  1-4,  and 
for  all  lines  parallel  with  it,  as  2-3. 

3.  Extend  1-4  to  meet  P.P.  at  B. 

4.  Drop  a  perpendicular  from  B  to  G.L.,  establishing  point  B'. 

5.  Draw  a  line  from  B'  to  V.P.i.  The  perspective  of  Hne  1-4  will  be 
somewhere  in  this  line.  To  find  the  perspective  of  point  i,  the  extremity  of 
line  I  -4,  proceed  as  follows  :  — 

6.  Through  S.P.  draw  a  line  parallel  to  1-2,  cutting  P.P.  in  D.P. 2. 

7.  Drop  a  perpendicular  from  D.P. 2,  meeting  H.L.  in  V.P.2. 

8.  Extend  1-2  to  meet  P.P.  in  D. 

9.  Drop  a  perpendicular  from  D  to  G.L.  establishing  the  point  D'. 

10.  Draw  the  line  D'-V.P.2.  The  perspective  of  point  i  lies  in  this 
line,  D'-V.P.2,  —  and  also  in  the  line  B'-V.P.i  ;  therefore,  it  must  be  at 
their  intersection,  i '. 

11.  As  this  prism  is  assumed  to  stand  upon  the  Ground  Plane,  at 
some  distance  behind  the  P.P.,  and  as  we  have  learned  that  all  measure- 
ments must  be  made  upon  the  P.P.,  we  must  measure  the  height  of  the 
prism  (assumed  to  be  4  inches)  up  from  B',  establishing  point  E. 

12.  Draw  E-V.P.i.  The  perspective  of  the  line  1-4  will  be  some- 
where in  the  line  E-V.P.i. 

13.  To  find  point  i ",  measure  4  inches  from  D'  on  the  line  D-D',  estab- 
lishing point  F      Draw  F-V.P.2. 

The  intersection  of  E-V.P.i  and  F-V.P.2  locates  i",  the  perspective 
position  of  point  i . 

14.  Draw  I'-i",  the  perspective  of  the  nearer  edge  of  the  prism. 

1 5 .  The  apparent  width  of  the  faces  of  the  prism  is  determined  by 
drawing  lines  from  the  points  in  the  object,  as  2,  3  and  4,  to  the  S.P. 
Where  these  converging  lines  pierce  the  P.P.,  as  in  points  G,  H,  and  I,  will 
be  found  the  apparent  widths.  From  these  points  drop  perpendiculars  to 
G.L.  At  the  intersection  of  these  lines  with  the  vanishing  lines  already 
found,  locate  G',  H'  and  I',  and  below  G",  H"  and  I". 


66 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


PERSPECTIVE  67 

i6.     Draw  the  necessary  verticals  connecting  these  points. 

After  a  careful  study  of  the  foregoing  explanation  of  Fig.  54,  the 
student  should  work  out  simple  problems,  such  as  the  following :  — 

Exercise  XI.  Draw  a  square  plinth  measuring  i  foot  X  4  feet  X  4  feet, 
placed  at  an  angle  of  30°  to  the  P.P.,  2  feet  behind  the  P.P.  and  2  feet  6  inches 
to  the  right  of  the  L.D.  S.P.  is  10  feet  in  front  of  P.P.,  and  2  feet  3  inches 
in  front  of  G.L.     H.L.  is  5  feet  above  G.L.     Scale  ^  inch=  i  foot. 

Exercise  XII.  A  square  pyramid  measuring  2  inches  X  2  inches  at  the 
base,  altitude  3^  inches,  is  placed  at  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  P.P.  It  is  \  inch 
behind  the  P.P.  and  i  inch  to  the  right  of  L.D,  S.P.  is  5  inches  from 
P.P.,  and  H.L.  is  3!^  inches  above  S.P.  G.L.  is  i  inch  above  S.P.  Scale, 
full  size. 

This  problem  is  worked  out  in  the  same  manner  as  the  problem  of  the 
square  prism  (Fig.  54)  with  the  exception  of  the  location  of  the  apex  of  the 
pyramid  in  the  perspective  view.  To  find  the  perspective  of  the  apex,  draw 
A-A',  parallel  to  1-4  (Fig.  55).  From  A' drop  a  perpendicular  to  G.L., 
establishing  A".  Measure  2^  inches  up  from  A",  establishing  point  D.  A"-D 
is  the  altitude  of  the  pyramid,  measured  on  P.P.  Draw  D-V.P.i.  The  per- 
spective apex  will  be  at  some  point  on  this  line.  Draw  A-S.P.,  establishing 
point  E  on  P.P.  From  E  drop  a  perpendicular  intersecting  D-V.P.i  in  E'. 
E'  is  the  perspective  apex. 

A  Building  in  Angular  Perspective.  Fig.  56  shows  a  perspective 
view  of  a  simple  country  church,  and  illustrates  the  process  usually  followed 
by  architects  in  projecting  measurements  from  plans  and  elevations.  In 
order  to  obtain  all  the  measurements  necessary  in  making  the  perspective 
drawing,  we  need  the  side  elevation  A  and  the  roof-plan  B.  The  roof-plan 
is  drawn  at  the  angle  assumed  as  the  point  of  view  of  the  observer.  (In 
choosing  a  point  of  view  for  a  perspective  drawing  select  an  angle  that  will 
show  the  building  in  as  comprehensive  and  advantageous  a  position  as 
possible.)  In  this  case,  the  roof-plan  is  placed  a  short  distance  behind  the 
P.P.  The  S.P.  is  assumed  to  be  in  front  of  the  near  corner  of  the  building. 
D.P.I  and  D.P.2,  and  V.P.i  and  V.P.2  were  established  as  in  previous 
examples,  already  explained.  All  points  from  the  roof-plan  were  projected 
to  the  P.P.,  and  perpendiculars  were  dropped  from  the  intersection  of  these 
points  with  the  P.P.,  as  in  the  preceding  problems.     All  vertical  dimensions 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


PERSPECTIVE 


needed  were  projected  from  the  side  view.  For 
instance,  the  perspective  height  of  the  steeple  was 
found  by  projecting  point  C  in  the  roof-plan  to  the 
P.P.,  establishing  C.  From  C  a  perpendicular 
was  dropped  to  the  G.L.,  establishing  C".  C" '  in 
the  side  view  was  projected  to  intersect  C-C\  in  C"  ".  Then  the  line 
C"  "-V.P.I  was  drawn.  The  perspective  of  the  apex  of  the  steeple  was  at 
F,  the  intersection  of  the  line  C"  "-V.P.i  with  the  line  D-E. 

The  other  points  needed  were  found  by  a  similar  process,  as  shown  in 
the  drawing. 

Oblique  Perspective.  All  lines  that  are  neither  parallel  nor  perpen- 
dicular to  the  G.L.  nor  to  the  P.P.  are  in  obhque  perspective.  (See 
"  Oblique  Perspective,"  pages  52  to  5^.) 


70 


ART  EDUCATIOX—HIGH  SCHOOL 


Oblique  perspective  is  used  mainly  in  getting  the  perspective  of  gables, 
hip-lines  and  roof  valleys  in  architectural  drawing. 

Fig.  57  shows  how  a  box  whose  cover  is  in  oblique  perspective  may 
be  drawn  with  mechanical  accuracy,  by  means  of  the  projection  of  dimensions 
and  angles  from  a  plan  and  a  side  view. 


i 


A  Pen-and-Ink  Sketch  of  a  Building  Drawn  in   Mechanical  Perspective 
FROM  AN  Architect's  Plans 


CHAPTER    III 

FIGURE    AND    ANIMAL    DRA\A/'ING 

Knowledge  of  Anatomy.  In  the  anatomy  of  the  human  figure,  as 
well  as  in  the  anatomy  of  animals,  there  are  a  few  fundamental  facts  that 
may  be  gained  through  a  brief  study  of  the  subject,  the  possession  of  which 
will  enable  the  student  to  approach  the  problems  of  figure  and  animal  draw- 
ing with  a  better  understanding  of  its  essentials  than  art  knowledge  alone 
can  give  him.  Painters,  sculptors  and  illustrators  find  that  an  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  location  and  function  of  bones  and  muscles  in  the  human 
figure  is  indispensable ;  for  the  high  school  student,  however,  such  exhaust- 
ive study  is  not  possible,  nor  is  it  necessary  to  the  development  of  general 
art  knowledge.  Such  acquaintance  with  the  general  proportions,  construc- 
tion and  articulation  of  the  human  figure  should  be  gained  as  will  enable  the 
student  to  draw  the  human  form  and  the  forms  of  familiar  animals  with 
intelligence  and  considerable  accuracy. 

General  Proportions.  The  head  is  the  basis  of  measurement  and 
proportion  in  either  the  male  or  the  female  figure,  and  the  average  man 
measures  y\  heads  in  height.  Fig.  i  shows  the  general  measurements  of 
an  average  figure  as  to  the  heights  of  the  various  parts.  The  upper  meas- 
urements are :  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the  base  of  the  chin,  i  head  ;  to 
the  deepest  part  of  the  chest,  2  heads ;  to  the  rim  of  the  pelvis,  3  heads ; 
to  the  base  of  the  torso,  4  heads.  (In  the  female  figure  the  base  of  the  torso 
is  a  little  lower  than  this  measurement.) 

The  lower  measurements  are :  from  the  foot  to  the  lower  edge  of  the 
knee-pan,  2  heads ;  to  the  head  of  the  thigh-bone,  4  heads ;  from  the  head  of 
the  thigh-bone  to  the  base  of  the  torso,  i  head.  Adding  these  proportions, 
we  find  the  sum  to  be  7 ^  heads,  the  height  of  the  average  human  figure. 


72 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


In  the  upper  half 
of  the  figure  the  dis- 
tance between  the  top 
of  the  head  and  the 
base  of  the  torso  may 
be  divided  into  thirds, 
giving  us  the  following 
points :  From  the  top 
of  the  head  to  the 
shoulder,  \\  to  the 
waist,  I;  to  the  base 
of  the  torso,  f . 

From  the  arm-pit 
to  the  elbow-joint  is 
equal  to  the  length  of 
the  forearm  from  the 
elbow  to  the  wrist. 
The  arm  when  dropped 
from  the  shoulder  and 
extended  at  full  length 
brings  the  tips  of  the 
fingers  approximately 
to  the  middle  of  the 
thigh-bone. 


I 


FIGURE   AND   ANIMAL   DRAWING 


73 


74 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Proportionate  Widths.  Fig.  2  shows  a  few  of  the  important  propor- 
tionate widths  of  the  figure.  The  width  of  the  head  at  the  level  of  the  eyes 
is  f  of  a  head.  The  width  of  the  shoulders  at  their  widest  point  (slightly 
below  the  joints)  is  2  heads.  The  width  of  the  hips  at  the  head  of  the 
thigh-bone  in  the  male  figure  is  i^  heads;  in  the  female  figure  it  is  if  heads. 

Proportionate  Depths.  Fig.  3  shows  the  human  figure  in  profile, 
and  gives  a  few  of  its  proportionate  depths.  From  the  lips  to  the  back  of 
the  neck  measures  f  of  a  head.  The  chest  at  its  greatest  depth  measures 
1 1  heads.  The  depth  of  the  loins  at  the  rim  of  the  pelvis  measures  |  of  a 
head. 

Proportions  Vary  with  Age.  The  proportions  of  the  human  figure 
vary  greatly  according  to  age,  the  measurements  already  given  being  the 
average  in  the  adult.     In  childhood,  we  find  that  the  head  is  much  larger,  in 


FIGURE  AND   ANIMAL   DRAWING 


75 


76 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


proportion,  than  it  is  when 
the  figure  is  full  grown. 
Fig.  4  shows  the  relative 
proportions  of  the  head  to 
the  body  at  the  ages  of 
six  months,  five  years, 
nine  years,  and  in  the 
adult. 

Exercise  I.  Make 
sketches  from  grown 
people,  at  home  or  in 
school,  as  shown  in  Figs. 
5,  6  and  7.  Begin  by 
making  dashes  to  locate 
the  top  of  the  head  and 
the  level  of  the  feet,  as 
A  and  B  in  Fig.  5.  Lo- 
cate some  very  apparent 
line,  such  as  a  waist-line, 
a  vest-line,  or  the  line  of 
a  coat  or  jacket,  about 
midway  between  the 
dashes  A  and  B.  (See 
C,  in  Fig.  5.)  Block  in 
the  main  masses  of  the 
head,  torso,  skirt,  etc. 
Verify  these  shapes  and 
measurements  by  refer- 
ring to  the  diagrams  given 
in  Figs.  I,  2  and  3.  Show 
only  proportions  of  the 
figure,  not  details. 

Exercise  II.  From 
one  of  your  schoolmates 
posed   in  profile  make  a 


FIGURE   AND  ANIMAL   DRAWING 


77 


L  ,.*^" 


78 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


similar  study,  as  shown  in  Figs.  8  and  9.  Remember  that  when  the  figure 
is  not  full  grown,  the  head  is  larger  in  proportion  to  the  body.  The  sketch 
shown  in  Fig.  8  represents  a  boy  that  was  seven  heads  high. 

Proportions  of  the  Head  and  Features.  The  general  shape  of  the 
head  is  like  an  ovoid  with  the  greatest  width  at  the  top.  The  eyes  are 
located  half  way  between  the  top  of  the  head  and  the  chin.  The  nostrils 
are  half-way  between  the  eyebrows  and  the  chin.  Dividing  the  distance 
between  the  nostrils  and  the  base  of  the  chin  into  thirds  locates  the  opening 
of  the  mouth  and  the  upper  limit  of  the  chin.  (See  Fig.  10.)  The  space 
between  the  eyes  is  equal  to  the  width  of  an  eye,  which  is  also  the  width 
across  the  lobes  of  the  nose.  The  top  of  the  ear  is  about  on  a  level  with 
the  eyebrow,  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  ear  is  about  on  a  level  with  the  end 
of  the  nose.  All  these  measurements  must  be  considered  as  approximate 
only,  but  they  are  of  great  service  as  aids  to  accurate  observation. 

In  Fig.  1 1  the  lines  that  are  drawn  to  locate  the  features  may  be  con- 
sidered as  circles  extending  around  the  ovoid  form  of  the  head.  When  the 
head  is  tipped  back,  these  circles  become,  in  perspective,  ellipses,  and  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  they  still  locate  the  features,  and  give  us  a  correct 
idea  of  foreshortening.  Fig.  12  shows  the  head  tipped  forward,  and  the 
lines  of  the  ellipses  take  the  opposite  curve. 


FIGURE  AND  ANIMAL   DRAWING  79 

Exercise  III.  In  order  to  become  familiar  with  measurements  given 
above,  make  enlarged  copies  of  Figs.  lo,  ii  and  12. 

Exercise  IV.  From  the  pose,  make  a  drawing  of  the  head,  verifying 
the  measurements  given'  in  Fig.  10.  In  finishing  the  sketch,  the  lines 
locating  the  features  may  be  erased. 

Action.  When  the  figure  is  seen  in  different  positions,  such  as  in 
bending,  kneeling,  etc.,  the  measurements  and  proportions  of  the  different 
parts  seem  to  be  changed.  This  is  because  of  the  effect  of  perspective. 
The  real  proportions  do  not  change.  The  human  figure,  in  its  various  posi- 
tions is  affected  by  perspective  in  the  same  way  that  any  other  object  is 
affected,  and  in  sketching  an  attitude  that  brings  foreshortening  into  the 
question  we  must  remember  that  appearances  are  often  very  different  from 
facts.  In  the  statue  shown  in  Fig.  13,  all  parts  impress  us  as  being  in 
correct  proportion,  yet  we  could  apply  the  unit  of  measurement  (the  head) 
only  to  the  legs  from  the  knee  down,  and  to  the  upper  part  of  the  left  arm, 
because  all  the  other  parts  are  turned,  and  are  foreshortened.  The  head 
itself  is  bent  forward,  and  does  not  appear  in  its  true  height.  The  torso  is 
also  inclined.  The  upper  part  of  the  right  leg,  the  lower  right  forearm,  the 
hands  and  the  left  foot  are  greatly  foreshortened  and  are  not  measurable  by 
ordinary  means.  Yet  we  know  that  the  parts  have  not  actually  changed 
their  proportions  or  measurements  ;  —  they  only  appear  to  have  done  so,  in 
the  same  way  that  the  faces  of  a  cube  retain  their  true  measurements, 
although,  in  perspective  their  appearance  is  so  much  changed. 

The  side  view  of  a  sitting  figure  is  not  difficult  to  draw,  as  in  this  posi- 
tion there  is  little  foreshortening,  and  most  of  the  parts  appear  in  their  true 
length  (See  Fig.  14). 

Exercise  V.  From  the  side  view  of  a  boy,  sitting,  and  engaged  in  some 
action,  such  as  whittling,  hammering,  fishing,  reading  or  writing,  make  a 
sketch.  Draw  first  light  lines  that  will  indicate  the  swing  or  direction  of 
the  figure,  as  shown  by  the  lines  A,  B  and  C  in  Fig.  15.  Upon  these 
lines,  block  in  the  head,  and  the  general  shapes  of  the  waist,  the  trousers, 
the  legs,  etc.  Test  the  measurements,  make  the  necessary  corrections,  and 
lay  in  the  values,  somewhat  as  indicated  in  Fig.  16. 

Balance.  In  all  standing  figures  the  center  of  gravity  should  pass 
through  the  supporting  foot,  or  between  the  feet,  if  they  support  equally. 


80 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


FIGURE  AND  ANIMAL   DRAWING 


81 


ART  EDUCATION-HIGH  SCHOOL 


FIGURE  AND  ANIMAL   DRAWING 


84 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


In  a  figure  that  is  merely  supporting  its  own  weight  this  point  is  immediately 
below  the  pit  of  the  neck  (Figs.  17  and  18).  The  extent  to  which  a  figure 
is  thrown  forward,  back,  or  to  one  side  does  not  alter  this  rule,  so  long  as 
the  figure  is  stationary  (see  the  Hne  AB  in  Fig.  19).  When  a  figure  is 
carrying  a  weight,  the  line  that  indicates  the  center  of  gravity  is  shifted  in  a 
direction  opposed  to  the  force  of  the  weight.  For  example,  in  Fig.  20  the 
weight  on  the  back  throws  the  line  AB  (which  marks  the  center  of  gravity) 
to  the  right,  and  it  falls  outside  the  foot-base;  in  Fig.  21,  the  weight  of  the 
dumb-bells  is  held  in  front  of  the  figure,  and  the  center  of  gravity  falls 
behind  the  feet;  in  Fig.  22  the  weight  is  carried  in  the  left  hand,  conse- 
quently the  center  of  gravity  is  found  at  the  right.  If  the  weight  in  the  left 
hand  were  increased,  the  center  of  gravity  would  fall  still  further  to  the 
right.  We  see  that  the  figure  is  thrown  out  of  normal  balance  in  proportion 
to  the  force  opposed  to  that  balance. 


FIGURE  AND  ANIMAL   DRAWING 


85 


A  loss  of  balance  creates  motion ;  this  may  be  voluntary,  as  in  walking 
or  running,  or  involuntary,  as  in  falling.  The  extent  to  which  a  figure  is 
thrown  out  of  balance  indicates  the  rapidity  of  the  motion.  This  is  shown 
in  Figs.  23  and  24,  where  the  motions  of  walking  and  running  are  illustrated. 
By  comparing  these  two  sketches  it  will  be  seen  that  the  difference  between 
these  actions  is  not  alone  in  the  position  of  the  legs,  but  that  other  parts  of 
the  body  are  affected  as  well.  In  running,  the  more  intense  action  is  shown 
in  the  forward  thrust  of  the  head,  the  stiffening  of  the  muscles  of  the  neck 
and  back,  and  in  the  increased  action  of  the  arms.  When  a  man  throws  a 
ball  it  is  not  alone  by  the  position  of  his  arms  that  the  action  is  expressed, 
but  by  the  position  and  action  of  the  head,  torso  and  legs ;  the  torso  is  bent 
back  and  turned,  the  left  leg  is  raised  from  the  ground  in  the  effort  to 
balance  the  torso,  and  there  is  a  combined  action  of  all  the  muscles  in  the 
body,  in  the  effort  to  hurl  the  ball  (Fig.  25). 

Exercise  VI.     Draw  one  of  the  school-boys  in  the  act  of  carrying  a 


86 


ART  EDUCATIOX—HIGH  SCHOOL 


pail  of  water  or  a  valiser 
Note  the  location    of   the 
center  of  gra\-ity,  and  the 
position  of  the  head,  torso, 
opposite  arm,  etc. 

Exercise  VII.  Draw 
from  the  pose  a  girl  sweep- 
ing or  writing  upon  the 
blackboard.  Sketch  the 
action  lines,  and  block  in 
the  main  shapes,  compar- 
ing one  part  with  another, 
as  you  work.  Finish  the 
sketch  in  values. 

Bone  Construction. 
When  we  attempt  to  draw 
the  figure  in  action,  we  find 
that  a  knowledge  of  the 
skeleton  and  its  construc- 
tion is  essential,  in  order 
that  we  may  know  where 
and  to  what  extent  action 
may  take  place.  Bones, 
we  know,  are  rigid,  and 
have  of  themselves  no 
power  to  move.  Action  is 
produced  when  bones 
articulate  with  one  another 
by  means  of  muscular  con- 
traction. This  articulation 
is  much  more  pronounced 
in  some  parts  of  the  body, 
as,  for  instance,  in  the 
arms,  legs  and  neck,  than 
it  is  in  others. 


FIGURE  AND  ANIMAL   DRAIVING 


87 


•  Beginning  with  the 
skull,  we  find  that  it  meas- 
ures about  \  of  the  height 
of  the  figure.  The  differ- 
ence between  this  measure- 
ment and  the  measurement 
of  the  head,  previously 
given,  is  accounted  for  by 
the  allowance  made  for 
muscle  and  hair.  With 
this  exception,  the  meas- 
urements of  the  figure  as 
before  stated  apply  also  to 
the  measurements  of  the 
skeleton.  Figs.  26,  27  and 
28  show  the  front,  side 
and  back  views.  The  skull 
is  placed  at  the  top  of  the 
spinal  column  or  backbone, 
which  is  composed  of  bony 
rings,  each  capable  of  slight 
movement,  one  upon  the 
other.  It  runs  a  little 
below  the  middle  of  the 
figure,  and  is  slightly 
cur\'ed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27. 
The  spine  is  the  supporting 

column  of  the  figure,  and  to  it  the  ribs  are  attached  at  the  back  (Fig.  28). 
With  the  exception  of  the  two  lower  pairs,  the  ribs  are  attached  in  front  to 
the  breast-bone,  or  sternum  (see  A  Fig.  26).  The  collar-bone,  or  clavicle 
(B,  Figs.  26  and  28),  is  attached  to  the  top  of  the  breast-bone  and  reaches 
to  the  shoulder,  where  it  forms  a  socket  with  an  extension  of  the  shoulder- 
blade,  called  the  scapula  (C,  Figs.  27  and  28).  The  shoulder  has  no 
other  articulation  with  the  skeleton,  its  further  attachment  being  by 
muscles  only. 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


The  spine  extends  be- 
low the  casing  of  the  ribs, 
and  is  finally  consolidated 
and  joined  to  the  pelvis 
(D,  Figs.  26,  27  and  28), 
which  is  a  basin-shaped 
bone  supporting  the  spinal 
column.  At  its  lower  out- 
side margin  is  a  deep 
socket  into  which  the  thigh- 
bone, or  femur  (E,  Figs. 
26,  27  and  28),  is  inserted. 
Both  the  arm  and  the  leg 
have  one  bone  in  the  upper 
portions  and  two  bones  in 
the  lower  portions,  as 
shown  in  the  drawings 
already  referred  to. 

In  looking  at  these 
sketches  of  the  skeleton,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  see  in 
what  places  motion  is  pos- 
sible and  in  what  places  it 
is  impossible.  The  two 
upper  vertebrae  of  the  spinal 
column  are  so  constructed 

Fig.  27  .  , 

as  to  give  unusual  move- 
ment to  the  neck.  The  upper  vertebra,  called  the  atlas  (F,  Fig.  27),  allows 
the  head  to  move  forward  and  back,  while  the  second  vertebra  (G,  Fig.  27), 
called  the  axis,  forms  a  pivot-like  joint,  around  which  the  head  may 
rotate.  The  shoulders  have  great  freedom  of  movement  and  can  be  raised 
to  the  level  of  the  jaw,  thrown  forward  or  pushed  back  and  depressed.  In 
the  ribbed  portion  of  the  trunk  there  is  little  motion,  but  at  the  waist  the 
figure  can  bend  forward  and  back,  it  can  incline  to  either  side,  or  it  can  partly 
turn  with  a  rotary  movement.     The  pelvis  itself  has  no  motion. 


FIGURE   AND   ANIMAL   DRAWING 


In  the  arms  there  is 
far  more  freedom  of  move- 
ment than  in  the  legs,  be- 
cause of  the  free  articula- 
tion of  the  shoulder  socket. 
The  arms  and  legs  articu- 
late at  the  elbows  and  the 
knees.  The  upper  bone 
of  the  arm  is  called  the 
humerus  (H,  Figs.  26,  27 
and  28).  As  has  been 
said,  in  the  lower  portion 
of  each  is  introduced  a 
second  bone,  giving  a  rotary- 
motion,  and  allowing  the 
wrist  and  ankle  to  turn 
from  side  to  side.  In  the 
arm,  this  second  bone,  the 
radius  (I,  Figs.  26,  27  and 
28),  rotates  around  the  head 
of  the  ulna  (J,  Figs.  26  and 
28),  the  bone  that  makes  a 
hinge-joint  with  the  h  u- 
merus,  and  forms  at  the 
wrist  a  pivot,  around  which 
the    radius    rotates.      This 

t'IG.   28 

construction    enables    the 

hand  to  twist  and  turn.  In  the  ankle  there  is  less  freedom  of  movement,  as 
the  bone  tibia  (K,  Figs.  26,  27  and  28)  makes  both  the  knee-joint  and  the 
ankle-joint,  and  the  second  bone,  called  the  fibula  (L,  Figs.  26,  27  and  28), 
while  it  permits  some  freedom  of  movement,  is  not  able  to  communicate  its 
action  to  the  foot. 

In  the  front  of  the  knee-joint  is  a  small,  flat,  round  bone  called  the 
tympanum  (M,  Figs.  26  and  27),  which  is  attached  by  tendons  to  the  leg 
bones.     This  forms  the  prominent  part  of  the  knee. 


90 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Muscles.  We  have 
now  a  general  idea  of  the 
human  skeleton  and  of  its 
capacity  for  action.  The 
bones  themselves,  we  have 
seen,  have  no  capacity  for 
action  but  depend  for 
movement  on  muscular 
contraction.  A  student 
who  desires  to  make  a 
serious  study  of  the  figure 
should  become  familiar  with 
at  least  as  many  of  the 
^  muscles  as  are  shown  in 
R.  Figs.  29,  30  and  3 1 . 

Figs.  29,  30  and  31 
show  the  front,  back  and 
side  views  of  the  muscular 
system. 

A,  Figs.  29,  30  and 
31,  is  the  sterno-mastoid 
muscle,  which  draws  the 
head  forward. 

B,  Figs.  30  and  31,  is 
the  trapezius,  which  draws 
the  head  back. 

C,  Figs.  29,  30  and 
31,  is  the  deltoid,  which 
lifts  the  arm. 

D,  Figs.  29,  30  and 
31,  is  the  latissimus  dorsi, 
which  draws  the  arm  down 
and  back. 

E,  Figs.  29  and  31,  is 
the  pectoral,  which  draws 


I 


FIGURE   AND   ANIMAL   DRAWING 


the   arm   and    shoulder 
forward. 

F,  Fig.  29,  is  the  rectus 
abdominis,  which  draws  the 
body  forward. 

G,  Figs,  29,  30  and 
31,  is  the  external  oblique, 
which  draws  the  body- 
laterally  and  assists  in  the 
expiration  of  the  breath. 

H,  and  I,  Figs.  30  and 
31,  are  the  gluteus  and 
tensor  muscles,  which, 
when  acting  together,  hold 
the  body  erect.  When  the 
gluteus  acts  alone,  the  thigh  ^ 
is  drawn  backward;  when 
the  tensor  acts  alone,  the 
thigh  is  drawn  forward. 

J,  Figs.  29  and  30, 
is  the  gracilis  muscle,  which 
helps  to  bend  the  leg,  and 
assists  in  bringing  it  and 
the  thigh  inward. 

K,  Figs.  29  and  31,  is 
the  rectus  femoris,  which 
straightens  and  extends 
the  leg. 

L,  Fig.  30,  is  the 
semi-tendinosus,  which 
helps  to  bend  the  leg. 

M,  Figs.  30  and  31, 
is  the  biceps  femoris,  which 
also  helps  to  bend  the  leg 
and  assists  in  turning  the 


90 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


leg  and  foot  out- 
ward, when  the 
figure  takes  a  sit- 
ting position. 

N,  Figs.  29, 
30  and  31,  is  the 
g  ^  s  txoc  jie  m  ius^ 
which  ends  in  the' 
t  £.pxl^jji  achilles, 
and  raises  the 
heel,  as  in  walking, 
running  or  stand- 
ing on  tiptoe. 

O,  Figs.  29 
and  31,  is  the  tib- 
ialis anticus,  which 
raises  the  front 
of  the  foot, 

P,  Figs.  29,  30 
and  31,  is  the  bi- 
ceps, which  raises 
the  lower  arm. 

O  is  the  tri- 
ceps, which 
straightens  the 
forearm  and  op- 
poses the  action 
of  the  biceps. 

R,  Figs.  29  and 
30,  is  the  supi- 
nator 1  o  n  g  u  s  , 
which  rolls  the  ra- 
dius bone  outward 
and  the  palm  of 
the  hand  upward. 


FIGURE  AND  ANIMAL   DRAWING  93 

S,  Fio-s.  29  and  31,  is  the  flexor  carpi  ulnaris,  which  extends  the 
wrist  and  hand. 

In  applying  the  knowledge  we  have  gained  of  the  proportion,  action, ' 
balance  and  construction  of  the  human  figure  to  drawing  from  the  pose,  we 
are  often  perplexed  because  the  clothing  obscures  many  of  the  principal 
joints  and  qualifies  to  some  extent  the  ratio  of  proportions.  The  uncertainty 
of  measurement  in  the  clothed  figure  is,  however,  only  additional  proof  that 
the  student  needs  some  definite  knowledge  of  anatomy  to  keep  him  from 
making  absurd  blunders  in  locating  or  indicating  important  joints,  etc.  If 
we  possess  even  a  limited  amount  of  scientific  knowledge  of  the  points 
covered  in  this  chapter,  we  will  look  at  the  pose,  not  as  a  mass  of  unintel- 
ligible lines  and  uncertain  proportions,  but  with  an  effort  to  locate  the 
essential  features  of  construction  and  action  that  every  figure  must  contain. 
When  we  know  where  to  look  for  these  points  we  shall  find  that  much  of 
the  construction  of  the  figure  is  apparent  through  the  clothing,  and  is  often 
measurable. 

Exercise  VIII.  On  tinted  paper  make  a  pencil  sketch  from  the  pose  of 
a  boy  sawing  a  board.  The  pose  may  appear  with  shirt  sleeves  rolled  up, 
with  a  soft  hat,  and  with  some  note  of  color,  as  for  instance  in  the  necktie. 
Sketch  in  the  figure  as  heretofore  directed,  getting  the  action  lines  first, 
then  blocking  in  proportions.  Finish  in  values,  adding  suggestive  touches  of 
white  chalk  and  color  as  the  costume  demands  (see  color  plate  facing  page  22). 

Exercise  IX.  On  tinted  paper  sketch  from  the  pose  of  a  boy  at  a 
manual  training  bench.  The  pose  should  be  in  the  act  of  planing,  using 
chisel  and  mallet,  boring  a  hole  with  brace  and  bit,  etc.  Use  charcoal  for 
this  sketch.  After  the  work  has  been  sprayed  with  fixative,  color  effects 
may  be  added  with  thin  washes  of  water-color  (see  "  Color  added  to  Char- 
coal Drawings,"  page  33). 

Exercise  X.  Sketch  from  the  pose  of  a  girl  drinking  tea  from  a  cup, 
holding  the  saucer  in  the  left  hand.  The  girl  should  be  dressed  in  white, 
with  a  note  of  color,  such  as  a  tie,  a  bow  in  the  hair,  etc.  (The  cup  and 
saucer  might  carry  a  note  of  blue  color.)  Sketch  the  outlines  in  pencil,  and 
put  in  the  mass  of  the  costume  in  white  chalk,  modelling  the  waist,  the 
sleeves  and  the  skirt  the  same  as  in  pencil  rendering,  instead  of  laying  the 
chalk  on  in  a  flat  tone. 


94 


ART  EDUCATIO.Y  —  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Exercise XI.  Sketch 
from  the  pose  of  a  child 
pulhng  a  toy  horse, 
wagon,  etc.  Use  tinted 
paper  as  before,  and  show 
a  color  note  in  the  toy 
or  in  some  part  of  the 
costume. 

E  X  c  r  ci  s  e  XII, 
Sketch  from  the  pose  of 
a  child  sitting  or  kneel- 
ing. (Marbles,  building 
blocks,  boat-sailing  and 
looking  at  picture-books 
are  suggested  as  interest- 
ing occupations.)  Use 
tinted  paper,  pencil, 
chalk  or  color  to  gain 
effects. 

Other  suggestions 
for  figure  drawing  are  : 

Draw  from  the 
pose  of  the  teacher  at 
her  desk ;  from  the 
teacher  standing;  from 
the  teacher  bending  over 
an  easel  or  desk ;  from  the  teacher  arranging  a  group  of  still-life  ;  from  the 
janitor  using  his  brushes  and  brooms ;  from  the  engineer  at  the  furnace ; 
from  workmen  about  the  building ;  from  a  boy  playing  hockey  ;  from  a  girl 
stirring  cake  in  a  large  yellow  bowl  with  one  or  two  blue  bands ;  from  a  man 
reading  a  newspaper ;  from  a  woman  sewing,  or  hanging  up  clothes,  etc., 
etc.  All  of  these  suggestions  are  capable  of  interesting  manipulation,  if 
done  on  tinted  or  bogus  papers,  with  charcoal,  pencil,  white  chalk,  colored 
crayons  or  water-colors. 

Anatomy  of  Animals.     If  we  are  familiar  with  the  bone  construction 


FIGURE  AND   ANIMAL    DRAWING 


95 


and  the  muscular  system 
of  man,  we  shall  find  that 
we  have  a  general  idea, 
also,  of  the  skeletons 
and  muscles  of  the  verte- 
brate animals,  for  be- 
tween the  anatomy  of 
man  and  that  of  the  ani- 
mals there  is  much  in 
common.  Owing  to  the 
difference  in  posture  and 
to  the  different  habits 
of  life,  there  is  necessary 
in  the  animals  some  re- 
adjustment and  modifica- 
tion of  the  parts,  but 
the  general  plan  we  shall 
find  to  be  the  same. 

Fig.  32  is  the  skel- 
eton of  a  man  in  the 
position  of  a  quadruped. 
By  comparing  this  figure 
with  Fig.  33,  which  is 
the  skeleton  of  a  cat; 
with  Fig.  34,  the  skele- 
ton of  a  dog ;  with  Fig. 
35,  the  skeleton  of  a 
horse  ;  and  with  Fig.  36, 
the  skeleton  of  a  cow,  we  see  at  once  the  general  similarity  of  plan.  Each 
has  a  skull,  backbone,  ribs,  pelvis  and  limbs.  There  are,  of  course,  great 
differences  in  the  shapes,  sizes  and  proportions  of  the  individual  bones,  for 
the  habits  and  necessities  of  different  animals  vary  greatly.  The  skull  of 
man,  for  instance,  has  a  larger  brain  capacity  than  we  find  in  the  animals, 
while  the  other  parts  of  the  skull,  such  as  the  jaws,  the  nose,  etc.,  are  much 
smaller  in  proportion.     In  the  elongation  of  the  spines   of  the  vertebrae, 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


shown  at  A,  in  Figs.  33 
to  36,  we  see  the  pro- 
visions made  for  the 
attachment  of  tlie  large 
muscles  that  are  neces- 
sary to  hold  the  head  in 
a  horizontal  position. 
We  note,  also,  a  differ- 
ence in  the  slant  of  the 
scapula,  B,  in  Figs.   33 

Fig.  36  a.  ^:         Ti. 

to  36.  Its  position  IS 
more  nearly  vertical  than  in  man  (Fig.  32),  where  the  same  bone  is  nearly 
horizontal,  producing  an  effect  of  squareness  in  the  shoulders.  Again, 
animals  have  a  larger  ribbed  portion  than  man,  and  this  makes  possible  an 
increased  lung  capacity.  The  pelvis  in  animals  (C,  Figs.  33  to  36)  is  much 
smaller  in  proportion  than  is  the  corresponding  bone  in  man.  The  large 
protuberances  at  the  back  of  this  bone  (D)  are  for  the  attachment  of  the 
large  muscles  of  the  leg.  The  greatest  difference  between  the  skeletons  of 
man  and  the  animals  is  seen  in  the  legs,  although  when  we  make  a  careful 
comparison  we  find,  even  in  the  limbs,  a  great  similarity  of  construction. 
The  arms  in  man  may  be  said  to  correspond  with  the  fore-legs  of  animals. 
While  it  is  true  that  the  bones  in  the  upper  leg  of  the  animals  (see  E  in 
Figs.  33  to  36)  are  much  shorter  than  the  corresponding  bones  in  man,  they 
closely  resemble  the  human  bones  in  other  respects.  In  the  bones  marked 
F  in  the  animal  skeletons,  corresponding  to  the  two  lower  bones  of  the  human 
arm  and  leg,  there  is  a  greater  difference,  and  this  variation  continues  in  the 
animals  themselves.  The  carnivorous  animals,  which  are  digitigrades  (that 
is,  animals  with  paws,  and  that  walk  upon  their  toes),  still  have  the  two  bones 
in  the  lower  leg,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  bones  marked  F  in  Figs.  33  and  34. 
The  herbivorous  animals,  which  are  ungulates  (animals  having  hoofs)  have 
the  two  bones  in  the  fore-legs,  although  the  second  bone  is  somewhat  rudi- 
mentary, while  in  the  hind-legs  the  bones  F  are  fused  into  one  (Figs.  35  and 
36).  In  Figs.  33  to  36  there  is  a  group  of  bones  marked  G,  corresponding 
to  the  human  wrist  and  ankle  bones.  The  bones  marked  H  correspond  to 
the  tarsal  and  metatarsal  bones  —  the  bones  of  the  human  hands  and  feet. 


FIGURE   AND   ANIMAL    DRAWING 


97 


In  these  last  bones  there 
is  much  variation  among 
the  animals.  In  the 
hoofed  animals,  they  are 
fused  into  one,  and  are 
very  much  elongated  ;  in 
the  animals  with  paws 
they  are  still  elongated, 
but  remain  separate. 
The  bones  marked  I  in 
the  animal  skeletons  cor- 
respond to  the  finger 
bones  in  man. 

We  have  thus  seen 
how  closely  the  animal 
skeleton  resembles  the 
skeleton  of  man.  We 
have  found  that  it  has  a 
corresponding  bone,  or 
its  modification,  for  each 
bone  in  the  human  skele- 
ton, with  the  single  ex- 
ception, in  some  cases, 
of  the  collar-bone.  The 
cat  has  a  collar-bone,  and 
the  dog  a  rudimentary 
one,  but  the  cow  and  the 
horse  have  none. 

The  absence  of  this 
bone  accounts  for  the 
restricted  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  animals' 
fore-legs. 

Comparison  of 
Muscles.     As  we  have 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


D  is  the  latissimus  dorsi  muscle. 

E  is  the  pectoral  muscle. 

F  is  the  rectus  abdominis  muscle. 

G  is  the  external  oblique  muscle. 

H  is  the  gluteus  maximus  muscle. 

I  is  the  tensor  muscle. 

K  is  the  rectus  femoris  muscle. 


compared  the  human 
and  animal  skeletons  and 
have  found  great  similar- 
ity, let  us  now  consider 
the  muscular  arrange- 
ment in  man  and  the 
animals.  Fig.  37  repre- 
sents man  in  the  position 
of  an  animal.  Fig.  38 
is  the  cat ;  Fig.  39,  the 
dog;  Fig.  40,  the  cow; 
and  Fig.  41,  the  horse. 
As  each  muscle  in  these 
five  figures  is  indicated 
with  the  same  letter,  we 
may  readily  compare  and 
name  them,  and  by  re- 
ferring to  the  paragraph 
on  Muscles,  page  90,  we 
may  review  the  attach- 
ment and  action  of  these 
same  muscles  in  man. 

A  is  the  sterno-mas- 
toid  muscle. 

B  is   the    trapezius 
muscle. 

C    is    the     deltoid 
muscle. 


FIGURE   AND   ANIMAL   DRAWING 


99 


L  is  the  semi-tendinosus  muscle. 

M  is  the  biceps  femoris  muscle. 

N  is  the  gastrocnemius  muscle. 

O  is  the  tibialis  anticus  muscle. 

P  is  the  biceps  muscle. 

O  is  the  triceps  muscle. 

R  is  the  supinator  longus  muscle. 

S  is  the  flexor  carpi  ulnaris  muscle. 

We  find  in  the  muscles  of  animals,  as  in  their  skeletons,  a  construction 
similar  to  the  human  construction,  with  similar  action  ;  but  the  extent  to 
which  action  is  possible  is  greatly  affected  by  the  differences  already  men- 
tioned^—  in  the  length  and  shape  of  the  bones  and  in  the  size,  shape  and 
strength  of  the  muscles.  For  example,  in  the  animals  the  additional  number 
of  vertebrae  in  the  neck  and  the  length  and  strength  of  the  neck  muscles 
enable  the  animal  to  turn  the  head  directly  backward,  or  to  lower  the  head 
to  the  ground,  as  in  grazing.  Again,  the  elongation  of  the  tarsal  bones 
makes  it  possible  for  the  animal  to  reach  its  head  with  its  hind  hoof  or  paw. 
There  are  many  other  actions  possible  with  animals  which  are  traceable  to 
structural  differences. 

Balance  in  Animals.  The  balance  of  animals  is  easily  discernible,  as 
the  weight  of  the  animal,  when  standing  still,  is  borne  at  the  four  extremities 
of  the  trunk.  When  action  occurs,  either  in  locomotion,  or  to  oppose  some 
force,  this  balance  is  necessarily  disturbed.  In  Fig.  42,  the  balance  of  the 
dog  is  destroyed, —  that  is,  the  dog  could  not  stand  in  this  position  without 
the  opposing  force  AB.     In  Fig.  43,  the  horse,  pulling  against  the  force  AB, 


100 


ART  EDUCATIO.Y~ HIGH  SCHOOL 


\ 


Fig.  44 

must  throw  his  body  forward  to  sustain  equilibrium.     The  loss,  regaining 
and  changing  of  balance  causes  locomotion. 

Locomotion.     In  walking,  an  animal  has  always  two  or  more  feet  on 
the  ground,  and  when  two  feet  are  suspended  between  the  supporting  legs, 


the  suspended  feet  are  laterals,  that  is,  they  are  on  the  same  side  of  the 
body  (Fig.  44).  When  the  suspended  feet  are  one  forward  and  one  back  of 
the  supporting  legs,  the  suspended  feet  are  diagonals  (Fig.  45).     In  trotting, 


FIGURE  AND  ANIMAL   DRAWING 


101 


the  diagonal  feet  move  together,  as  in  Figs.  46  and  47.  In  a  gallop,  the 
animal  throws  itself  forward  with  a  fore-foot,  lands  upon  the  diagonal  hind- 
foot,  places  next  on  the  ground  the  other  hind-foot  and  lastly  the  remaining 
fore-foot.  These  movements  are  illustrated  in  the  eight  sketches  shown  in 
Fig.  48.  The  student  should  make  a  number  of  drawings,  copying  in  pencil 
Figs.  44,  45,  46  and  47,  until  he  is  familiar  with  these  various  actions.     He 

y  "y  "^  'ffC 


should  then  verify  his  sketches  by  a  close  observation  of  animals,  when  he 
can  see  them  in  similar  action.  With  this  knowledge  at  his  command,  he 
can  sketch  animals  from  life  without  stopping  to  study  the  complicated 
actions  involved  in  the  walking,  trotting  and  galloping  common  to  all  animals. 
When  sketching  from  life  this  definite  knowledge  of  the  universal  actions  of 
animals  can  be  used  unconsciously,  and  attention  can  be  given   to   those 


102  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

actions  which  are  individual,  or  which  are  characteristic  of  the  particular 
animal  under  observation.  The  more  we  gain  of  general  knowledge  in  draw- 
ing, and  the  greater  masters  we  become  of  certain  universal  laws  of  propor- 
tion, action,  balance  and  construction,  the  freer  we  are  to  observe  and 
express  individuality,  or  that  which  is  not  universal.  While  we  must  have 
definite  knowledge  of  the  type,  it  is  a  certain  departure  from  the  type  that 
makes  a  sketch  interesting.  The  object,  then,  of  this  definite  and  scientific 
study  is  not  to  lead  us  away  from  nature,  but  rather  to  bring  us  back  to 
nature,  with  keener  appreciation  and  with  a  better  understanding  of  the 
great  simplicity  of  her  universal  laws. 


J 


CHAPTER    IV 

CONSTRUCTIVE    DRAWING 

Introduction 

In  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  world  it  is  necessary  that  there  should 
be  a  division  of  labor.  The  hardships  of  pioneer  life  are  due  very  largely 
to  the  separation  of  man  from  his  fellows.  In  building  his  shelter,  for 
instance,  the  early  settler  must  cut  down  his  own  trees,  and,  instead  of  the 
timbers  which  the  saw-mill  and  the  planing-mill  could  prepare  for  him,  he 
must  resort  to  logs  laid  one  upon  the  other  for  the  walls  of  his  dwelling. 
He  cannot  develop  the  resources  of  the  new  country  without  the  assistance 
of  his  fellow-man,  and  when  more  people  are  attracted  to  the  locality  he 
has  chosen,  there  arises  the  demand  for  the  architect,  the  carpenter,  the 
mason,  the  plasterer,  the  plumber,  the  machinist  and  for  all  the  other  work- 
men which  the  building  up  of  a  community  makes  necessary.  In  order 
that  all  this  constructive  work  may  be  carried  on  without  confusion  or  loss 
of  time,  some  definite  and  accurate  means  of  conveying  ideas  is  needed. 
Even  if  all  men  spoke  a  universal  language,  words  would  fail  to  convey  with 
clearness  and  accuracy  all  the  information  that  a  body  of  workmen  must 
possess  in  order  to  build  a  house,  a  bridge,  or  a  piece  of  machinery.  A 
drawing  or  picture  is  a  language  which  men  of  all  nations  understand,  but 
a  picture  of  the  appearance  of  an  object,  while  it  may  give  a  general  idea 
of  that  object,  does  not  furnish  all  the  facts  of-  form,  size,  and  structure 
which  a  workman  must  have  if  he  is  to  construct  that  object.  Hence  there 
has  been  developed  another  kind  of  drawing,  called  constructive  or  me- 
chanical drawing,  which  deals  with  the  facts  of  an  object,  and  not  with  its 
appearance.  Mechanical  drawing  has  certain  methods  peculiar  to  itself; 
and  its  symbols  and  conventions  constitute  a  language  for  the  transmission 


104  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

of  ideas  relating  to  construction.     In  order  to    acquire  this  language  the 
student  will  need  the  following  equipment :  — 

Materials  and  Instruments  ^ 


Drawing-board 

Emery  pad  or 

sand 

-paper 

Ink  eraser 

Paper 

Compasses 

India-ink 

Thumb  tacks 

T  square 

Ruling  pen 

Scale 

Triangles 

French  curves 

Pencils 

Pencil  eraser 

Penholder  and  pen 

Drawing-Board.  A  drawing-board  may  be  procured  of  any  school- 
supply  house. 

Paper.  The  paper  should  be  of  good  quality,  and  sufficiently  heavy 
to  stand  the  eraser.  It  may  be  either  white  or  manila.  Two  good  sizes 
for  ordinary  school  use  are  9"  x  12"  and  12"  x  18". 

Thumb  Tacks.  These  are  tacks  with  large,  flat  heads,  used  for 
fastening  the  paper  to  the  drawing-board.  Four  tacks  are  sufficient  for  a 
sheet  of  paper  of  ordinary  size. 

Scale.  For  elementary  work,  a  ruler  marked  off  in  inches,  halves, 
quarters,  eighths  and  sixteenths  will  answer ;  but  for  more  advanced  work 


l"l     I     I      I     I     I     '     I      I     I     I     I     I     I      '     I     I     I     '     I     ^     |iii|iii|iii|iii| 


^  %, 


Fig.  1 


v\^\»^\^^{\^\\i\   \  \  ^  ,\  ^  ,\   ^  ,\   ^  ,\  ^   >\  ^  .\  \  .\  \  \  ^  \.  ^'^"^'^'^'^\ 


L^\.^.\^\A^\^\^\A^\^\^\AA^\^\^\A^\^\^\^\■A\\AA^\^\^\^\^\^\^\AA^\^\^\\\\\^\^\^\\\^\\\^\^\^\.\^\ 

Fig.  2 

where  scale  drawings  are  required,  an  instrument  called  a  scale  is  neces- 
sary. Two  scales  used  in  ordinary  practice  are  shown  in  Figs,  i  and  2. 
Pencils.  Two  pencils,  one  medium  hard  and  one  hard,  are  necessary. 
The  hard  pencil,  which  is  used  for  making  fine  lines,  should  be  sharpened 
to   a   "wedge"    point,    as    shown   in    Fig.    3.      The    medium-hard    pencil, 

lln  elementary  work,  where  inking  is  not  required,  the  student  will  not  need  the  last  five  items  on 
this  list. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


105 


Figs.  3  and  -1 


which  is  used  for  Hning  in,  for  figures,  for 

letters    and   for  free-hand   lines,    should    be 

sharpened   to  a  conical   point,  as  shown  in 

Fig.  4.     In    both  pencils    the    lead    should 

be  kept  sharp  by  rheans  of  emery  cloth  or 

sand-paper,  which  may  be  glued  or  otherwise 

fastened  to  a  thin  strip  of  wood. 

Compasses.     Compasses  are  used  for 

drawing  circles  and  parts  of  circles,  and  are 

provided    with    a    needle    point    for    fixing 

centers,  a  detachable  pencil  point,  an  inking 

pen,  and  a  lengthening-bar,  used  for  draw- 
ing curves  of  large  circles  (Fig.  5).     Good 

compasses   are    jointed,    thus    allowing    the 

legs  to  be  bent  in  order  that  both  blades  of  the  pen  may  be  perpendicular 

to  the  paper  when  in  use.     The  lead  in  the  compasses  should  be  hard  and 

sharpened   to   a  wedge  point,  the 
flat  face  being  set  to  coincide  with 

the  circle  which  it  draws.     In  ad- 

U      justing  the  lead,  be  careful  not  to 

set  the  thumb-screw  too  tight,  as 
there  is  danger  of  "  stripping  "  the 
thread. 
T  Square.     The  T  square  is  an  important  instrument,  used  in  draw- 
ing horizontal  lines  and  in  supplying  an  edge  against  which  the  triangles 

are  placed    in  drawing  vertical  and   oblique   lines.     It    is 

made  of  two  pieces,  the  head  and  the  blade  (Fig.  6). 
Triangles.       Two     triangles      are 

necessary:  one  called  the  45°  triangle, 

having  angles  of  45°  and  90°  (Fig.  7), 

and  one  called  the  30°  and  60°  triangle, 

having  angles  of  30°  and  60°  (Fig.   8). 

Triangles  made  of  transparent  material, 

such  as  celluloid,  are  preferable. 

Erasers,   The  pencil  eraser  should 


106  ART  ED UCA  TION—  HIGH  SCHO OL 

be  soft  and  pliable.     The  ink  eraser  or  sand-rubber  is  needed  for 
erasing  inked  lines. 

Ink.      Waterproof    India-ink  should  be  used   for  "inking  in" 
mechanical  drawings. 

Ruling  Pen.  A  ruling  pen  is  used  for  inking  in  all  lines.  It 
has  a  thumb-screw  adjustment  by  which  the  width  of  the  line  is  regu- 
lated (Fig.  9).  Arrow- 
heads, figures  and  let- 
ters are  inked  with  a 
common  pen  ;^a  No.  303 

Fig.  9       /--ii    i-i-'  •  1  f  iG.  10  FIG.  11 

*'*'•  ^     Gillott  s  pen  is  good. 

Irregular  or  French  Curves.  These  are  made  in  various  forms.  The 
illustrations  show  some  common  examples  (Figs.  10,  11  and  20). 

Directions  for  Using  Materials  and  Instruments 

The  drawing-board  when  in  use  should  lie  flat  upon  the  desk,  or  it 
may  be  slightly  inclined.  Generally,  the  board  should  be  placed  with  the 
long  edges  running  from  left  to  right.  To  fasten  the  paper  upon  the 
board,  place  it  about  in  the  center,  and  fix  a  thumb  tack  in  the  upper  left 
corner.  Set  the  head  of  the  T  square  against  the  left  edge  of  the  board 
so  that  the  upper  edge  of  the  blade  coincides  with  the  upper  edge  of  the 
paper.  Fix  a  second  thumb  tack  in  the  lower  right  corner.  Then  fix 
tacks  in  the  other  two  corners.  In  ruling  lines,  use  the  T-square  blade, 
the  edge  of  a  triangle  or  a  ruler.  The  scale  should  be  used  for  marking 
distances,  and  not  for  ruling  lines.  If  a  line  of  a  certain  length  is  desired, 
it  is  best  to  draw  a  fine  pencil  line  longer  than  the  line  required,  and  to 
mark  off  the  exact  distance  on  that  line,  rather  than  to  try  to  make  it  the 
right  length  at  the  first  trial.  To  mark  off  the  exact  distance,  lay  the  scale 
on  the  line,  and  set  the  point  of  the  pencil  at  the  marks  measuring  the 
distance  on  the  scale,  making  small  pencil  points  on  the  line.  When  two 
equal  distances  are  to  be  measured  from  a  central  point,  or  when  several 
equal  distances  are  to  be  set  off  on  a  line,  it  is  better  to  use  the  dividers. 
Spread  the  points  of  the  dividers  until  they  measure  on  the  scale  the 
required  distance.      "Step  off"  these    distances   on  the  line,  thus  making 


COXSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


at  each  point  a  slight  puncture  on  the  surface  of 
the  paper. 

To  draw  circles  with  the  compasses,  take  the 
head  of  the  compasses  between  the  thumb  and 
forefinger,  or  between  the  thumb,  forefinger  and 
middle  finger,  as  shown  in  Fig.  12.  The  instru- 
ment should  be  placed  so  that  the  pencil  point  is 
\^  at  the  left  of 

\        \^  and  below  the 

center,  and 
held  so  that 
the     pressure 

on    the    fixed  ^^^  ^^ 

point   is  very 

slight.       In  describing   the    circle,  turn 

the  hand  to  the  right,  so  that  the  pen- 

cil  point  will  take  the  same  movement 

as    the   hands    on    a    clock-face.       The 

^'''"  ^^  compass  should  be  held  at  a   slight  in- 

clination  to  the  right  and  the  pressure  on  the  pencil  point  should  be  even 

throughout. 

In  ruling  straight  lines  from  one  point  to  another,  as  from  point  A  to 
point  B  in  Fig.  13,  first  place  the  pencil  on  one  of  the  points,  as  B; 
slide  the  edge  of  the  ruler  up  until  it  touches  the  pencil  and  also  coincides 
with  the  other  point,  as  A.  Draw  the  line.  Lines  are  usually  drawn 
from  left  to  right. 

When  the  T  square  is  in  use,  the 
head  should  be  held  against  the  left 
edge  of  the  drawing-board.  The 
upper  edge  of  the  blade  should  be 
used  for  ruling  horizontal  lines 
(Fig.  14).  Vertical  lines  should  be 
drawn  against  the  edge  of  a  triangle 
whose  base  is  resting  against  the 
upper    edge    of    the    T-scjuare    blade 


108 


ART  EDUCATIOX—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


(Fig.  15),  To  draw  lines  at  45,  30 
or  60  degrees,  use  the  triangles  as 
shown  in  Fig.  16.  For  oblique  lines 
at  other  angles,  use  the  triangles  as 
shown  in  Fig.  17. 

The  placing  of  marginal  lines  on 
a  sheet  of  paper  is  important,  and 
should  be  systematically  done.  Place 
the  paper  on  the  board,  as  previously 
explained.  Decide  on  the  width  of  the 
margin,  as  three  quarters  of  an  inch.  Measure  this  distance  in  from  each 
edge  of  the  paper,  placing  the  dot  near  the  middle  of  the  proposed  line. 
Place  the  pencil  point  on  the  lower  dot,  and  slide  the  T  square  up  to  meet 
it.  Using  the  upper  edge  of  the  T  square  as  a  ruler,  draw  a  fine  line  the 
whole  length  of  the  paper.  Draw  the  upper  marginal  line  in  the  same 
way.  Make  the  side  lines  by  using  the  T  square  and  a  triangle.  Line  in 
or  strengthen  the  lines  forming  the  rectangle,  and  erase  the  ends  that 
fall  outside. 

All  drawings  should  be  done  first  with  fine  pencil  lines,  so  that  cor- 
rections can  easily  be  made.     When  the  drawing  is  to  be  finished  in  pencil, 


Fig.  17 

the  lines  not  wanted  should  be  erased,  and  the  others  lined  in  with  a 
medium-hard  pencil,  taking  care  to  make  all  corresponding  lines  of  uniform 
width.  When  a  line  that  is  to  be  erased  is  near  another  line,  the  line  to 
be  retained  may  be  covered  with  a  piece  of  paper,  so  as  to  protect  it  while 
the  other  is  being  removed.     If  the  line  to  be  erased  is  between  two  other 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


109 


lines,  use,  as  a  protector,  two  pieces  of  paper  or 

cut  a  narrow  slit  in  one  piece. 

The  ruling-  pen,^  used  for  inking  in  drawings, 

should  be  filled  from    the  quill  attached    to  the 

stopper  of  the  bottle.     The  column  of  ink  in  the 

pen  should  not  be  more  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch 

high.     All  lines  of  the  same  width  and  kind  on  a 

sheet  should  be  inked  in  with  the  same  setting  of 

the  pen,  and  the  pen  points  then  changed  for  the 

next  width  of  line  by  adjusting  the  screw.     Try  fig.  is 

the  lines  on  a  waste  piece  of  paper  before  inking  the  drawing. 
In  ruling  lines,  the  pen  should  be  held  nearly  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  paper,  inclined  to  the  right,  with  the  pen  pressed 
slightly  against  the  edge  of  the  ruler  (Fig.  i8).  Curved  lines 
should  be  inked  first. 

In  using  the  compass  pen,  the  joints  in  the  legs  should  be 
adjusted  so  that  the  lower  parts  of  the  legs  are  perpendicular 
to  the  paper  (Fig.  19).     Try  the  pen  on  waste  paper  before 
making  the  line  on  the  sheet.     If  both  points  are  not  touching 
^'^'  ^^  the  paper,  the  line  will  be  ragged  on  the  side  of   the  short 

point.     In  case  a  very  fine  line 

cannot  be  made  with  the  pen, 

it  is  probably  dull.     To  sharpen 

it,   screw    the  points   together 

and    sharpen    on    the    outside 

only,  using  a  fine  oil-stone. 

For    inking    curves    that 

are  not  circular  it  is  necessary  \  j 

to  use  the    instrument   known  ^^-^  }  ^'' 

as    the    irregular    or    French  ""''■-----_.!._------'''' 

curve.       The     desired     curve  Fig.  20 

should  be  first  drawn  free  hand,  with  a  light  pencil  line.     This    must    be 


1  Inking  is  sometimes  omitted  in  the  first  year  or  in  the  first  two  years  of  high  school  work,  for  the 
sake  of  devoting  more  time  to  learning  the  principles  of  mechanical  drawing,  and  to  giving  practice  in 
pencil  drawing. 


110  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

done  very  carefully,  as  any  error  in  the  pencilling  is  emphasized  in  the  ink- 
ing. Lay  the  French  curve  on  the  line,  so  that  it  fits  as  large  a  portion  as 
possible,  as  at  A  B  (Fig.  20).  Do  not  ink  in  quite  as  much  of  the  line  as 
coincides  with  the  curve.  Move  the  curve  along,  matching  it  with  another 
portion  of  the  line,  as  at  B  C  and  continue  this  process  until  the  curve  is 
accurately  inked. 

Geometric  Problems 

Geometry  is  the  basis  of  accurate  constructive  drawing,  and  is  fre- 
quently used  in  design ;  therefore  the  student  should  become  familiar  with 
those  geometric  constructions  that  are  ordinarily  employed.  The  work- 
ing out  of  the  problems  that  follow  will  prove  a  means  of  gaining  this 
knowledge,  and  will  provide  opportunity  for  practice  in  .the  use  of  instru- 
ments. All  geometric  problems  should  be  worked  with  the  ruler  and 
compasses,  and  every  point  found  by  geometric  methods.  The  use  of  the 
T  square  and  triangles  follows  later,  when  practical  constructive  methods 
are  considered. 

A  problem  in  geometric  drawii>g  may  be  divided  into  three  parts  : 
first,  that  which  is  given ;  second,  the  construction ;  third,  that  which  is 
required;  and  to  distinguish  these  separate  features,  three  kinds  of  lines 
are  used.  If  the  work  is  in  pencil,  make  the  given  lines  medium  width 
(Fig.  21),  the  working  lines  very  fine  (Fig,  22),  and  the  required  or  result 
lines  strong  and  dark  (Fig.  23),     If  the  problem  is  to  be  inked  in,  draw  all 

.  lines  in  fine,  full  pencil  lines,  then  ink  in  as  indicated 

Fig.  21  abovc.     Working  or  construction  lines  may  be  inked 

~'  ;  with  fine,  short   dash  lines   (Fig.  24).     In   working 

!__: the  problems,  mark  the  given  lines  and  points  with 

F'«-  23  capital  letters,  and  the  constructive  steps  with   nu- 

--  merals,  in  the  order  of  procedure,  thus:   i  will  indi- 

FiG.  24  '  J^  ' 

cate  the  first  step  taken  ;  2,  the  second  step,  and  so 

X\X  on.     A  problem  thus  worked  will  show  at  a  glance 

N  what  was    given,  the   method    of   working,  and    the 

result  (Fig.  27). 

In    working   geometric    problems    the    student 
should  at  first  make  large  drawings,  not  more  than 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


111 


one  on  a  sheet,  or  one  problem  worked  two  or 
three  times,  placed  in  various  positions  (Fig. 
25).  Later,  the  space  within  the  margin  may 
be  divided  into  four  equal  parts,  and  a  problem  or 
exercise  placed  in  each  space  (Fig.  26). 

Problem  I  —  To  draw  a  perpendicular  to 
a  line  AB  at  a  given  point  C  in  the  line. 
(Fig.  27.)  With  C  as  center  and  any  radius  less 
than  CB  or  CA,  set  off  equal  distances,  Ci  and 
C2,  from  C.  With  points  i  and  2  as  centers, 
and  with  a  radius  greater  than  half  the  distance 
1-2,  describe  arcs  intersecting  at  3.  Draw  the 
line  3C,  which  is  the  required  perpendicular. 

Problem  II  —  To  draw  a  perpendicular  to 
a  line  AB  from  a  point  C  outside  the  line. 
(Fig.  28.)  W^ith  C  as  center  and  any  radius, 
draw  arcs  cutting  the  line  AB  in  two  points,  i 
and  2.  With  i  and  2  as  centers  and  any  radius, 
draw  arcs  intersecting  at  3.  Draw  C3,  the  re- 
quired line. 

Note.     It  must  be  remembered  that  a  perpendicular  line  is 
not  necessarily  a  vertical  line. 

Problem  III  —  To  draw  a  perpendicular 
to  a  given  line  AB,  at  or  near  its  extremity. 
(Fig.  29.)  With  A  or  B  as  center  and  any  radius, 
draw  an  arc  (nearly  a  semicircle)  cutting  the  line 
AB  in  I.  With  i  as  center  and  with  the  same 
radius,  cut  this  arc  at  2.  With  2  as  center  and 
with  the  same  radius,  describe  the  arc  3-4.  With 
3  as  center  and  same  radius,  intersect  3-4  in  4. 
Draw  4A,  the  required  perpendicular. 

Problem  IV  —  To  bisect  a  given  straight 
line  AB  or  an  arc  of  a  circle  ACB.  (Fig.  30.) 
With  A  and  B  as  centers  and  any  radius  greater 
than  half  of  AB,  describe  arcs  intersecting  at   i 


^^ 


c 

Fig.  27 


-B 


112 


X 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

and  2.  Draw  the  line  1-2,  which 
bisects  the  given  line  AB,  the  arc 
ACB,  and  is  perpendicular  to  the 
line  AB  at  its  center. 

Exercise  I.     Bisect  lines  and 
arcs  in  the  positions  given  in  Fig.  31:  — 

Exercise  II.  Construct  a  square  on  its  diag- 
onals (Fig.  32). 

Problem  V  —  To  draw  a  line  parallel  to  a 
given  straight  line,  at  a  given  distance  from  it. 
(Figs.  33  and  34.)  Let  AB  be  the  given  line  and 
CD  the  required  distance.  Place  two  points  in 
the  given  line  AB,  and  from  these  points  erect 
perpendiculars  by  Problem  I.'  With  i  and  2  as 
centers  and  a  radius  equal  to  the  required  dis- 
tance, CD,  draw  arcs  cutting  the  perpendiculars 
in  points  3  and  4.  Draw  3-4,  the  required  line. 
In  practice,  the  perpendiculars  are  sometimes 
omitted  (Fig.  34). 

Problem  VI  —  To  construct  a  square 
upon  a  given  side,  AB.  (Fig.  35.)  At  A  or  B 
erect  a  perpendicular  by  Problem  III.  With  A 
as  center  and  AB  as  radius,  describe  an  arc  cut- 
ting the  perpendicular,  in  i.  With  B  and  i  as 
centers  and  AB  as  radius,  describe  arcs  intersect- 
ing in  2.     Draw  1-2  and  2B, 

Exercise:  Construct  an  oblong,  the  sides  be- 
ing given;  length,  3",  width,  2". 

Problem  VII  —  To  construct  an  equilat- 
eral triangle  upon  a  given  base  AB.  (Fig.  36.) 
With  A  and  B  as  centers  and  AB  as  radius, 
describe  arcs  which  intersect  at  i.  Draw  lA 
and  iB. 

1  If,  in  working  out  a  problem,  it  becomes  necessary  to  repeat  a 
former  problem,  the  steps  of  the  problem  referred  to  are  not  numbered. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


113 


Exercise  I.  Construct  an  isosceles  tri- 
angle, the  base  and  sides  being  given  ;  base, 
2"  ;  sides,  3". 

Exercise  II.  Construct  a  scalene  triangle, 
the  sides  being  given;  sides,  2",  3"  and  4", 
respectively. 

Problem  VIII  —  To  bisect  a  given  angle 
ABC.  (Fig.  37.)  With  B  as  center,  describe 
an  arc  intersecting  AB  and  BC  in  i  and  2. 
With  I  and  2  as  centers  and  any  radius,  describe 
arcs  intersecting  in  3.  Draw  the  line  3B,  which 
bisects  the  angle  ABC. 

Exercise:  Bisect  an  acute  angle  and  an 
obtuse  angle. 

Problem  IX  —  To  trisect  a  right  angle 
ABC.  (Fig.  38.)  With  B  as  center  and  any 
radius,  describe  an  arc  intersecting  AB  and  BC 
in  I  and  2.  With  i  and  2  as  centers  and  the 
same  radius,  cut  the  arc  in  3  and  4.  Draw  3B 
and  4B,  trisecting  the  angle. 

Problem   X  —  At  a  point  A  in  a  given 
line  AB  to  draw  an  angle  equal 
to  a  given  angle  CDE.      (Fig.  39.) 
With  D  as  center  and  any  radius, 
describe  an  arc    cutting    the  lines 
DC  and  DE  in  i  and  2.     With  A 
as    center   and    the    same    radius, 
describe  an  arc  cutting  the  line  AB 
in  3.    With  3  as  center  and  radius  equal  to  1-2, 
intersect  the  arc  in  4.     Draw  4A,  the  required 
angle. 

Problem  XI  —  To  construct  an  angle  of 
60°  at  a  given  point  A  on  the  line  AB.  (Fig.  40.) 
With  A  as  center  and  any  radius,  describe  an 
arc  cutting  the  line  AB  in  i.     With  i  as  center 


>< 


Fig.  40 


114 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


and  the  same  radius,  intersect  the  arc  in  2.     Draw 
A2,  making  an  angle  of  60°. 

Problem  XII  —  To  construct  an  angle  of  go°, 
60°,  45°,  30",  15°,  or  of  any  other  given  magnitude. 
(Fig.  41.)  The  circumference  of  a  circle  contains 
360°.  Any  diameter,  as  1-2,  divides  the  circle  into 
two  equal  parts,  each  containing  180°.  Two  diam- 
eters at  right  angles  to  each  other,  as  1-2,  and  3-4, 
divide  the  circle  into  four  equal  angles  of  90°  each. 
Trisect  one  of  these,  as  4C2,  by  Problem  IX,  obtain- 
ing angles  of  30°,  2C5,  and  60°,  5C4.  Bisect  2C5 
(an  angle  of  30°)  and  angles  of  15°,  2C7 
and  7C5  are  obtained.  Bisect  an  angle 
of  90°  (Problem  VIII)  and  obtain  angles  of 
45  °.  Trisect,  by  spacing  with  the  dividers, 
an  angle  of  15°  and  angles  of  5  °  are  ob- 
tained. Divide  one  of  these  into  five  equal 
parts  and  single  degrees  are  obtained. 

Note.     Any  angle  cannot  be  trisected  geometii- 
it  must  be  spaced  with  the  dividers. 

Problem  XIII  —  To  divide  a  given  line  into 
any  number  of  equal  parts.  (Fig.  42.)  Let  AB 
be  the  given  line,  to  be  divided  into  five  equal  parts. 
At  A  draw  a  line  making  any  acute  angle  as  BAC, 
with  AB.  At  B  draw  a  line  making  the  same  angle 
as  DBA,  with  AB  (by  Problem  X),  but  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  line.  Beginning  at  A  and  B  set  off 
on  the  lines  AC  and  BD  as  many  equal  parts,  less 
one,  as  the  given  line  is  to  be  divided  into, —  in  this 
case,  four.  Connect  the  first  point,  i,  with  the  last 
point,  8.  Draw  parallels  to  the  line  1-8,  connecting 
the  other  points.  These  parallels  divide  the  given 
line  AB  into  five  equal  parts. 

Problem  XIV — To  inscribe  a  regular  hexagon 
within  a  given  circle.     (Fig.  43.)     Draw  a  diameter 


cally : 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


115 


of  the  circle,  1-2.  With  i  as  center  and  the 
radius  of  the  circle  as  radius,  intersect  the  cir- 
cumference at  points  3  and  4.  With  2  as  center 
and  the  same  radius  intersect  the  circumference 
at  points  5  and  6.  Draw  1-3,  3-5,  5-2,  2-6, 
6-4  and  4-1.  The  inscribed  figure  is  the  re- 
quired hexagon. 

Note  I.  By  joining  alternate  points  an  inscribed  equi- 
lateral triangle  is  obtained. 

Note  2.  The  radius  of  a  circle  spaced  off  on  the  cir- 
cumference   divides  the  circumference  into  six  equal  parts. 

Problem  XV  —  To  construct  a  regular 
hexagon  upon  a  given  base.  (Fig.  44.)  Let 
AB  be  the  given  base.  With  A  and  B  as  cen- 
ters and  a  radius  equal  to  AB  describe  arcs 
intersecting  at  i .  With  i  as  center  and  the 
same  radius  describe  a  circle.  Set  off  the  radius 
six  times  upon  the  circumference,  and  draw  A2, 
2-3,  3-4,  4-5  and  5-B,  making  the  required 
hexagon. 

Problem  XVI — ^Vithin  a  given  circle  to 
inscribe  a  square.  (Fig.  45.)  Draw  a  diam- 
eter of  the  circle,  as  1-2.  Bisect  1-2  by- 
Problem  IV,  and  continue  the  bisector  until  it 
intersects  the  circle  in  points  3  and  4.  Draw 
1-3,  3-2,  2-4,  4-1,  thus  obtaining  the  required 
inscribed  square. 

Exercise :  Within  a  given  circle  to  inscribe 
a  regular  octagon  (Fig.  46). 

Problem  XVII  —  To  construct  a  regular 
octagon  upon  a  given  side.  (Fig.  47.)  Let 
AB  be  the  given  side.  With  A  and  B  as  cen- 
ters, and  a  radius  equal  to  AB,  describe  two 
semicircles.  At  A  and  B  erect  perpendiculars 
by  Problem  II L     Extend  the  line  AB  in  both 


IW 


ART  EDUCATTOISr—  HTGH  SCHOOL 


directions  until  it  meets  the  arcs  in  points  i  and 
2.  Bisect  the  right  angles  1A3  and  2B4,  by 
Problem  VIII.  Produce  the  bisectors  until  they 
meet  the  arcs  in  points  5  and  6.  Draw  the  line 
5-6,  cutting  the  perpendiculars  in  7  and  8. 
From  7  and  8  set  off  the  distance  y-Z  on  the 
perpendiculars,  in  points  9  and  10.  Draw- 
through  9  and  10  a  straight  line,  indefinite  in 
length.  Set  off  from  9  and  10  distances  9-1 1, 
9-12,  10-13  ai^d  10-14  equal  to  5-7.  Draw 
5-1 1,  11-12,  12-13,  13-14  and  14-6,  making 
the  required  octagon. 

Problem  XVIII  —  To  construct  a  regular 
octagon  within  a  given  square.  (Fig.  48.) 
Let  ABCD  be  the  given  square.  Draw  its  diag. 
onals,  intersecting  at  the  center,  i.  With  A, 
B,  C  and  D  as  centers,  and  Ai  as  radius,  draw 
arcs  intersecting  the  sides  of  the  square  in  points 
2,  3,  8,  9,6,  7,  4  and  5.  Draw  9-6,  7-4,  5-2 
and  3-8,  making  the  required  octagon. 

Problem  XIX  —  To  inscribe  a  regular 
pentagon  within  a  given  circle.  (Fig.  49.) 
Draw  a  diameter,  1-2,  and  a  radius,  3-4,  perpen- 
dicular to  it.  Bisect  1-3  in  5.  With  5  as  center 
and  radius  5-4,  intersect  1-2  in  6.  With  4  as 
center  and  radius  4-6,  intersect  the  circle  in  7. 
4-7  is  the  side  of  the  required  pentagon.  Set 
off  this  distance  five  times  on  the  circumference, 
and  draw  4-7,  7-8,  8-9,  9-10,  and  10-4. 

Problem  XX  —  To  construct  a  regular 
pentagon  upon  a  given  side.  (Fig.  50.)  Let 
AB  be  the  given  side.  With  A  and  B  as 
centers  and  radius  AB  describe  circles  intersect- 
ing in  points  i  and  2.  With  2  as  center, 
and   the    same   radius,   obtain    the  intersecting 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRA  WING 


117 


points  3,  5  and  4.  Through  3-5  and  4-5 
draw  lines,  producing  them  to  points  6  and  7. 
With  6  and  7  as  centers  and  radius  AB  de- 
scribe arcs  intersecting  at  8.  Draw  A7,  7-8, 
%-6,  and  6-B. 

Problem  XXI  —  To  inscribe  a  regular 
polygon  of  any  number  of  sides  within  a 
given  circle.  (Approximate  method.)  (Fig. 
51.)  Suppose  we  wish  to  inscribe  a  polygon 
of  five  sides  within  a  given  circle.  Draw  a 
diameter,  AB,  and  divide  it  by  Problem  XIII 
into  as  many  equal  parts  as  the  polygon  is  to 
have  sides,  —  in  this  case  five.  With  A  and 
B  as  centers,  and  radius  AB,  describe  arcs  inter- 
secting in  5.  From  5,  draw  a  straight  line 
through  the  second  point  2,  to  intersect  the 
circle  in  6.  A6  is  a  side  of  the  required 
polygon.  Beginning  at  6,  set  off  A6  upon 
the  circle  to  obtain  7,  8  and  9.  Draw  A-6, 
6-7,  7-8,  8-9  and  9A. 

Problem  XXII  —  To  c'rcumscribe  a 
circle  about  a  given  triangle.  (Fig.  52.) 
Let  ABC  be  the  given  triangle.  Bisect  any 
two  of  its  sides  by  Problem  IV.  Produce  the 
bisectors  until  they  meet  at  i.  With  i  as 
center,  and  radius  lA,  iB  or  iC,  describe  the 
circle. 

Exercise  I.  To  draw  a  circle  through 
three  given  points,  not  in  the  same  straight 
line,  construct  a  triangle  by  connecting  the 
given  points  with  straight  lines,  and  proceed 
as  in  Problem  XXII. 

Exercise  II.  To  find  the  radius  of  a  given 
arc,  or  the  center  of  any  circle,  assume  any 
three  points  in  the  curve  and  proceed  as  above. 


113 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


\y 


Exercise  III.  To  find  the  radius  of  the  arch  for 
a  window,  the  width  of  the  window  and  the  rise  of 
the  arch  being  given  (Fig.  53).  Let  the  width  of  the 
window  AB  be  4"  and  the  rise  of  the  arch  1-2  be  f ". 
Find  the  center  for  the  arcs. 

Problem  XXIII  —  To  inscribe  a  circle  within 
a  given  triangle.  (Fig.  54.)  Let  ABC  be  the  given 
triangle.  Bisect  any  two  of  the  angles  by  Problem 
VI IL  The  bisectors  will  intersect  at  i.  From  point 
I  draw  a  perpendicular  to  any  one  of  the  sides,  by 
Problem  II,  obtaining  point  2.  With  i  as  center,  and 
1-2  as  radius,  draw  the  required  circle. 

Problem  XXIV  —  To  inscribe  three  equal 
tangential  circles  within  an  equilateral  triangle. 
(Fig.  55.)  Let  ABC  be  the  given  triangle.  Bisect  the 
angles  A,  B  and  C  by  lines  meeting  at  i.  Bisect 
the  right  angle  1-2-B,  obtaining  the  point  3,  the  center 
of  one  of  the  required  circles.  With  i  as  center,  and 
radius  equal  to  1-3,  describe  a  circle,  obtaining  the 
points  4  and  5,  which  are  the  centers  of  the  other 
two  circles.  The  shortest  distance,  as  3-6,  from  the 
center  3  to  a  side  of  the  triangle  is  the  radius  of 
the  required  circles. 

Exercise  I.  Inscribe  six  equal  tangential  circles 
within  a  regular  hexagon  (Fig.  56). 

Exercises:  Construct  Trefoils,  Quatrefoils  and 
Cinquefoils  (Figs.  57,  58,  59,  60  and  61). 

Problem  XXV  —  To  draw  a  tangent  to  a  given 
circle  at  a  point  A  in  the  circumference.  (Fig.  62.) 
Draw  a  radius,  Ai,  and  extend  the  line  beyond  the 
circumference.  Erect  a  perpendicular  at  A  by  Prob- 
lem I.     BC  is  the  required  tangent. 

Problem  XXVI  — To  draw  an  arc  of  a  given 
radius  tangent  to  two  lines  forming  a  right  angle. 
(Fig.  63.)     With  B  as  center  and  any  radius,  draw 


I 


COXSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


119 


arcs  cutting  the  sides  of  the  right  angle  in 
I  and  2.  With  i  and  2  as  centers,  and  the 
same  radius,  draw  arcs  intersecting  in  3. 
With  3  as  center,  and  the  same  radius,  draw 
the  required  arc. 

Exercise:  Round  off  the  corners  of  a 
given    figure   (Fig.  64)   with   curves    of   f" 

radius,  as  in  Fig.  64^. 

Problem  XXVII  — To  draw  an  arc 
of  a  given  radius,  tangent  to  two  straight 
lines  forming  an  oblique  angle.  (Fig.  65.) 
Let  AB  be  the  given  radius,  and  CDE  the 
given  angle.  Bisect  the  angle  CDE  by- 
Problem  VIII,  and  draw  a  line  FG  parallel 
to  DE,  at  a  distance  equal  to  the  given 
radius  AB.  The  intersection  of  FG  with 
the  bisector  of  the  angle  will  be  the  center 
of  the  required  arc.  From  point  i  draw 
lines  perpendicular  to  the  lines  DC  and  DE, 
in  points  2  and  3.  These  are  the  points  of 
tangency.  With  i  as  center,  and  a  radius 
equal  to  AB,  draw  the  required  curve. 

Exercise:  Draw  a  curve  of  i"  radius, 
tangent  to  two  lines  forming  an  obtuse  angle. 

Problem  XXVIII  — To  draw  an  arc 
of  a  given  radius,  tangent  to  a  given  line 
and  a  given  circle.  (Fig.  66)  Let  AB  be 
the  given  line,  C  the  given  circle,  and  DE 
the  given  radius.  Draw  a  line  EF  parallel 
to  AB  at  a  distance  DE.  Draw  any  radius 
of  the  circle  C,  as  1-2,  and  produce  it  to 
make  the  distance  2-3  equal  to  DE.  With 
I  as  center,  and  1-3  as  radius,  describe  an 
arc  intersecting  the  line  EF  in  point  4. 
From  4  draw  a  perpendicular  to  the  line  AB 


-P 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


in  point  5,  which  is  the  point  of  tan- 
gency  on  the  line  AB.  With  4  as 
center,  and  radius  4-5,  draw  the  re- 
quired tangential  arc. 

Exercise:  Describe  arcs  of  |" 
radius,  tangent  to  the  circle  E  and 
the  straight  lines  AB  and  CD  (Fig.  Gy. 
Figs.  67a  and  68  are  applications  of 
this  problem). 

Problem  XXIX  — To  draw  an 
arc  of  a  given  radius,  tangent  to  two 
given  circles.  (Fig.  69.)  Let  A  and 
B  be  the  given  circles,  and  CD  the 
given  radius.  With  the  center  of  the 
circle  A  as  center  and  radius  1-2,  equal 
to  the  radius  of  A  plus  CD,  describe 
the  arc  2-3.  With  the  center  of  circle 
B  as  center  and  radius  4-5,  equal  to 
the  radius  of  B  plus  CD,  draw  the  arc 
6-5  intersecting  the  arc  2-3  in  7. 
With  7  as  center  and  radius  equal  to 
CD,  draw  the  required  tangential  arc. 

Exercise:  The  centers  of  two 
circles  whose  diameters  are  I  "and  2", 
respectively,  are  3"  apart.  Draw  a 
curve  having  a  radius  of  2",  tangent  to 
the  two  circles. 

Problem  XXX  — To  construct 
an  ellipse,  its  major  and  minor  axes 
being  given.  (Fig.  70.)  Place  the 
axes  AB  and  CD  at  right  angles  to 
each  other  at  their  centers,  obtaining 
point  I.  With  i  as  center,  describe 
circles  upon  the  axes  as  diameters. 
Divide    each    circumference    into   the 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRA  WING 


same  number  of  equal  parts,  say  twelve 
(Problem  IX).  Draw  lines  through  the  points 
in  the  large  circle  parallel  to  CD.  Draw 
lines  through  points  in  the  small  circle  paral- 
lel to  AB.  The  points  of  intersection  in 
these  parallels,  as  3,  4,  are  points  in  the  curve 
of  the  ellipse.  Draw  a  free-hand  ellipse 
through  these  points,  correcting  it  by  means 
of  the  French  curve. 

'  Problem  XXXI  — To  draw  with  a 
trammel  an  ellipse  when  the  axes  are 
given.  (Fig.  71.)  Draw  the  two  axes  at 
right  angles  to  each  other  at  their  centers. 
Lay  off  on  the  straight  edge  of  a  strip  of 
paper  the  length  of  one  half  of  each  diame- 
ter. Thus,  1-2  is  equal  to  half  of  the  short 
diameter,  and  1-3  to  half  of  the  long  diame- 
ter. Adjust  the  paper  in  relation  to  the 
diameters  so  that  point  2  is  on  the  long 
diameter,  and  point  3  on  the  short  diameter. 
Place  a  point  at  the  end  of  the  paper  at  4. 
Move  the  paper  so  that  point  2  will  move  in 
on  the  long  diameter  and  point  3  will  move 
out  on  the  short  diameter.  Mark  another 
point  5  at  the  end  of  the  trammel.  Repeat 
this  at  frequent  intervals  on  each  quarter  of 
the  ellipse.  Draw  a  free-hand  cur\'e  through 
these  points.  Correct  by  use  of  the  French 
curve. 

Problem  XXXII  —  To  draw  upon 
given  axes  an  approximate  ellipse.  (Fig.  A 
72.)  Draw  the  two  axes  AB  and  CD  per- 
pendicular to  each  other  at  their  centers. 
With  I  as  center,  and  half  the  short  axis,  iC 
as   radius,   describe  an  arc   C2.      Draw   CB. 


122 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


From  C  set  off  C3  equal  to  2B,  which  is  the  difference  between  half  the 
short  and  half  the  long  axis.  Bisect  B3,  and  continue  the  bisector  until  it 
intersects  AB  in  4,  and  CD  in  5.  With  4  as  center,  and  radius  4B, 
describe  an  arc  B6.  With  5  as  center,  and  radius  5-6,  describe  an  arc  that 
will  pass  through  C,  completing  one  quarter  of  the  curve.  From  i  set  off 
1-7  equal  to  1-4,  and  1-8  equal  to  1-5.  Draw  lines  connecting  5-7,  8-7 
and  8-4,  extending  them  as  indicated  in  the  figure.  With  points  4,  5,  7 
and  8  as  centers,  complete  the  ellipse  as  already  explained. 


Geometrical  Definitions 

A  Point  is  that  which  has 
position  without  extension  (Fig. 
73).  A  Point  is  formed  when 
two  lines  intersect  (Fig.  74). 

A  Line  is  that  which  has 
length  without  breadth  or  thick- 
ness (Fig.  75). 

Lines  are  either  vertical, 
horizontal  or  oblique. 

A  Vertical  Line  is  a  line 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the 
horizon  (Fig.  J 6). 

A  Horizontal  Line  is  a 
level  line  parallel  to  the  horizon 

(Fig.  75). 

An  Oblique  Line  is  a 
slanting  line,  neither  upright  nor 
level  (Fig.  77). 

Parallel    Lines    are    lines 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRA  WING 


123 


running  in  the  same  direction,  which, 
if  produced,  will  never  meet  (Figs.  78 
and  79). 

Two  straight  lines  are  said  to  be 
perpendicular  to  each  other  when  they 
meet  at  right  angles  (Figs.  80  and  81). 

(Perpendicular  and  vertical  are  not 
synonymous  terms.) 

A  Surface  is  that  which  has 
length  and  breadth  without  thickness 
(Fig.  82). 

A  Plane  is  a  surface  such  that  if 
any  two  points  in  it  are  joined  by  a 
straight  line  the  line  will  lie  wholly 
on  the  surface  (Fig.  83). 

A  Solid  is  that  which  has  length, 
breadth  and  thickness  (Figs.  84  and  85). 

An  Angle  is  the  difference  in  the 
direction  of  two  straight  lines  which 
meet  at  a  point,  or  would  meet  if  ex- 
tended (Fig.  "^6  a  and  b).  The  point 
where  the  lines  meet  is  called  the  ver- 
tex of  the  angle  (plural  vertices). 

A  Right  Angle  is  formed  by  the 
meeting  of  two  lines  that  are  per- 
pendicular to  each  other  (Fig.  ^j  a 
and  b). 

An  Acute  Angle  is  an  angle  which 
is  less  than  a  right  angle  (Fig.  88). 

An  Obtuse  Angle  is  an  angle 
which  is  greater  than  a  right  angle 
(Fig.  89). 

A  Right-angled  Triangle  is  a 
triangle  which  has  a  right  angle  (Fig. 
90). 


Fig.  87 


124 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


An    Acute-angled  Triangle    is   a 

triangle  which  has  three  acute  angles 
(Fig.  91). 

An  Obtuse-angled  Triangle  is  a 
triangle  which  has  one  obtuse  angle 
(Fig.  92). 

An  Equilateral  Triangle  is  a 
triangle    which    has     three    equal    sides 

(Fig.  93). 

An  Isosceles  Triangle  is  a  tri- 
angle which  has  two  of  its  sides  equal 
(Fig.  94  a  and  b). 

A  Scalene  Triangle  is  a  triangle 
which  has  no  two  of  its  sides  equal  (Fig. 

95). 

A  Quadrilateral  is  a  plane  figure 
bounded  by  four  straight  lines  (Figs. 
96,  97,  98,  99,  100  and  10 1). 

A  Square  is  a  quadrilateral  hav- 
ing four  equal  sides  and  four  right 
angles  (Fig.  96). 

A  Rectangle  is  a  quadrilateral 
whose  opposite  sides  are  equal  and 
parallel  and  whose  angles  are  right 
angles  (Fig.  97). 

A  Rhombus  is  a  quadrilateral 
whose  sides  are  equal  but  whose  angles 
are  not  right  angles  (Fig.  98). 

A  Rhomboid  is  a  quadrilateral 
whose  opposite  sides  are  equal  and 
parallel  and  whose  angles  are  not  right 
angles  (Fig.  99). 

A  Trapezium  is  a  quadrilateral 
which  has  no  two  sides  parallel  (Fig. 
100). 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


125 


A  Trapezoid  is  a  quadrilateral  which 
has  two  sides  parallel  (Fig.  loi). 

A  Polygon  is  a  plane  figure  having 
any  number  of  sides  (Fig.  102). 

A  Regular  Polygon  is  a  plane  figure 
having  any  number  of  equal  sides  and  equal 
angles  (Fig.  103). 

A  Polygon  of  three  sides  is  called 
a  triangle  (Fig.  104);  of  four  sides,  a 
quadrilateral  (Fig.  105) ;  of  five  sides,  a 
pentagon  (Fig.  106) ;  of  six  sides,  a  hexa- 
gon (Fig.  107) ;  of  seven  sides,  a  heptagon 
(Fig.  108);  of  eight  sides,  an  octagon 
(Fig.  109)  ;  of  nine  sides,  a  nonogon  (Fig. 
1 10) ;  of  ten  sides,  a  decagon  (Fig.  in). 

A  Perimeter  is  the  boundary  of  a 
plane  figure  (Figs.  96  to  1 1 1). 

A  Diagonal  is  a  straight  line  in  any 
polygon  which  connects  angles  not  adjacent 
(Figs.  1 12  and  1 13).  In  regular  polygons, 
diagonals  are  called  long  when  they  pass 
through  the  center,  as  AB  in  Fig.  112, 
and  short  when  they  connect  angles  and 
do  not  pass  through  the  center,  as  CD  in 
Fig.  112.  In  a  regular  polygon  with  an 
even  number  of  sides  a  line  joining  the 
centers  of  two  opposite  sides  is  often 
called  a  diameter  (Fig.  1 14). 

A  Circle  is  a  plane  figure  bounded 
by  a  curved  line  called  the  Circumference, 
all  points  of  which  are  equally  distant 
from  a  point  within  called  the  center  (Fig. 
115). 

A  Diameter  of  a  circle  is  any 
straight    line    passing  through    the  center 


126 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


and  terminating  in  both  directions  in  the  cir- 
cumference (Fig.  115). 

A  Radius  (plural  radii)  of  a  circle  is  any- 
straight  line  extending  from  the  center  to  the 
circumference  (Fig.  115). 

An  Arc  of  a  circle  is  any  part  of  the  cir- 
cumference (Fig.  116). 

A  Chord  is  a  straight  line  joining  the 
extremities  of  an  arc  (Fig.  1 16). 

A  Semicircle  is  half  of  a  circle  (Fig.  1 1  5). 

A  Quadrant  is  a  quarter  of  a  circle  (Fig. 
115). 

A  Sector  is  a  part  of  a  circle  bounded  by 
two  radii  and  the  included  arc  (Fig.  116). 

A  Segment  is  a  part  of  a  circle  included 
between  an  arc  and  its  chord  (Fig.  1 16). 

A  Tangent  to  a  circle  is  a  straight  line 
which  touches  the  circumference  but  does  not 
cut  it,  however  far  produced  (Fig.  116). 

An  Ellipse  is  a  plane  figure 'bounded  by 
a  curve,  every  point  of  which  is  at  the  same 
combined  distance  from  the  two  points  within, 
called  the  foci  (Fig.  117). 

A  Sphere  is  a  solid  bounded  by  a  curved 
surface,  every  point  of  which  is  equally  distant 
from  a  point  within  called  the  center  (Fig. 
118). 

A  Cube  is  a  solid  bounded  by  six  equal 
square  faces  (Fig.  119). 

A  Cylinder  is  a  solid  bounded  by  a  curved 
surface  and  by  two  opposite  faces  called  bases. 
A  cylinder  is  named  from  the  shape  of  its 
bases,  which  may  be  circular,  elliptical  or  other 
curved  shapes.  The  circular  cylinder  is  the 
one  ordinarily  used  (Fig.  120). 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRA  WING 


127 


A  Prism  is  a  solid  whose 
bases  are  similar,  equal  and 
parallel  polygons,  and  whose 
sides  are  parallelograms. 
Prisms  are  named  from  the 
shape  of  their  ends,  as  tri- 
angular, square,  pentagonal, 
etc.  (Figs.  121,  122  and  123). 

A  Pyramid  is  a  solid  of 
which  one  face,  the  base,  is  a 
polygon,  and  the  lateral  faces 
are  triangles,  having  a  com- 
mon vertex  called  the  vertex 
or  apex  of  the  pyramid  (Figs. 
124,  125  and  126). 

A  Cone  is  a  solid  bounded 
by  a  plane  surface  called  the 
base  (which  is  a  circle,  ellipse 
or  other  curved  shape),  and 
by  a  lateral  surface  which  is 
everywhere  curved,  and  tapers 
to  a  point  called  the  vertex  or 
apex  (Fig.  127).  A  cone  is 
named  from  the  shape  of  its 
base. 

A  Truncated  Cone  or 
Pyramid  is  that  portion  in- 
cluded between  the  base  and 
a  cutting  plane,  which  may 
be  either  parallel  or  oblique 
to  the  base  (Fig.  1 28).  When 
the  cutting  plane  is  parallel  to 
the  base  the  section  between 
the  cutting  plane  and  the  base 
is  called  a  frustum  (Fig.  1 29). 


I 


^-■J-^ 


Fig.  121  Fig.  122 


Fig.   124  Fig.  125 


128 


ART  EDUCA  TION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


A  Plinth  is  a  cylinder  or  prism  whose  axis  is  its  least  diameter. 
Plinths  are  named  from  the  shapes  of  their  bases,  as  circular,  square, 
triangular,  etc.  (Figs.  130,  131  and  132). 

An  Ellipsoid  is  a  solid,  all  plane  sections  of  which  are  ellipses  or  circles 

(Fig-  133)- 

An  Ovoid  is  an  egg-shaped  solid  (Fig.  134). 


CONS  TR  UC  TI VE   DRA  WING 


129 


Working  Drawings 

Working  drawings  are  drawings  which  deal  not  with  the  appearance  of 
an  object,  but  with  its  facts.  They  must  furnish  all  that  a  workman  needs 
to  know  in  regard  to  its  form,  size,  proportion,  the  material  to  be  used  and 
the  method  of  manufacture  or  manner  of 
construction,  in  order  to  make  that  object. 
In  Fig.  135  is  a  perspective  picture  which 
gives  a  general  idea  of  the  three  dimen- 
sions of  a  boat,  but  such  a  sketch  would 
not  furnish  a  builder  with  the  necessary- 
facts  which  he  must  know  if  he  wishes  to 
make  a  boat  like  this.  He  must  know  its 
actual  length,  its  actual  width  and  its  actual 

1  ,  .-^,  ^  ,  ,  -PIG.    130 

depth.     These  facts  cannot  be  accurately 

expressed  in  a  perspective  picture,  but  must  be  shown  by  means  of  geometric 
views  —  that  is,  views  which  would  each  give  two  of  the  actual  dimensions 
of  the  object.  These  different  views  are  named  from  the  part  represented. 
The  front  view  is  obtained  by  looking  directly  at  the  front  of  the  object ;  the 
top  view,  by  looking  directly  at  the  top ;  the  end  views,  by  looking  directly 
at  the  ends,  and  the  bottom  view,  when  used,  by  looking  directly  at  the 
bottom.  In  a  working  drawing,  as  these  groups  of  views  are  called,  the  top 
view  is  placed  above  the  front  view ;  the  bottom  view  below  the  front  view, 
and  the  end  views  at  the  right  and  left  of  the  front  view.     Fig.  136  shows 


Top  View 


^ 


Mitch&d  bonrds 


Front   V/eur 
Fig.  136 


i'/ 


End   Vie  xa/ 


130 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Top  VieiA} 


a  working  drawing  of  the  boat.  The  front 
view  shows  the  length  and  depth  of  the 
boat,  the  slant  of  the  ends  and  the  posi- 
tion of  the  rowlocks.  The  top  view  shows 
the  width  and  length,  the  placing  of  the 
three  seats  and  their  dimensions,  and  the 
position  of  the  rowlocks  in  relation  to 
the  middle  seat.  The  end  view  shows  the 
depth  and  the  width  of  the  boat  and  the 
angle  which  the  sides  make  with  the  bot- 
tom, which  in  this  case  is  a  right  angle. 
The  separate  views  in  a  working  drawing 
are  also  called  projections,  and  whichever 
view  is  drawn  first,  forms  the  basis  of  pro- 
jection of  all  the  other  views.  The  terms 
"top  view,"  "front  view,"  "side  view  "  and 
"end  view  "  are  only  relative,  for  the  same 
face  may  be  a  top  view,  a  front  view  or  an  end  view,  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  object.  For  example,  Fig.  137  shows  three  views  of  a  square 
prism,  standing  vertically.  The  top  view  is  a  square,  and  the  front  and 
side  views  are  oblongs.  In  Fig.  138  the  position  of  the  square  prism  is 
changed,  and  the  front  and  top  views  are  oblongs,  while  the  end  view 
becomes  a  square. 

In  making  a  workim 


Front  Mevo  Side  Vievo 

Fig.  137 


drawing  of  an  object  the  views  should  be  placed  in 


Top  Vie  to 


Top  Vievo 


Front  VieiAJ  Side  J/iew  Front  J/ievo  Sida  l^ew 

Fig.  138  Fig.  139 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


131 


their  natural  positions.  For  example,  a  brick 
usually  rests  on  one  of  its  largest  faces,  and 
to  represent  this,  the  views  should  be  drawn 
as  shown  in  Fig.  139.  In  drawing  the  views 
of  a  chimney,  however,  the  front  view  should 
be  expressed  by  the  upright  wide  oblong, 
because  that  is  its  natural  position  (Fig.  140). 
In  the  representation  of  the  different 
faces  of  objects,  the  eye  is  not  supposed  to  be 
fixed  at  one  point,  as  in  perspective  repre- 
sentation, but  it  is  assumed  to  be  opposite 
each  point  in  the  surface  to  be  represented. 
When  the  faces  are  perpendicular  to  the  line 
of  sight,  they  are  represented  in  their  true 
shape,  but  when  the  faces  are  oblique  to  the 
line  of  sight,  the  oblique  faces  are  represented 
as  foreshortened.  This  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  141,  142  and  143.  Fig.  141 
shows  the  top  and  front  views  of  a  cube  placed  directly  in  front  of  the 
observer.  The  two  views  are  of  the  same  shape,  but  they  express  different 
dimensions.  The  front  view  shows  the  height  and  the  width  from  left  to 
right,  while  the  top  view  shows  the  width  from  left  to  right,  and  the  width 
from  front  to  back.     These  facts  must  always  be  shown  by  the  front  and  top 


1    |o^  View    1 

Front  Vieu)  Side  J/ievu 

Fig.  140 


LIU 


front  Mew 


front  View 


132 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Front  yie-uj 


Front  Vieiu 
Fig.  144 


views  of  any  object, 
in  any  position.  Fig. 
142  shows  the  front 
and  top  views  of  the 
cube  placed  at  an 
angle  of  45°.  The 
front  view  shows  the 
height,  as  before,  and 
also,  as  before,  the 
actual  extension  or 
width  of  t  Ji  e  solid 
from  left  to  right. 
This    width    is    ex- 


pressed by  horizontal  lines,  and  the  result  is  that  the  two  oblique  faces  are 
foreshortened  in  the  front  view.  The  same  point  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  143, 
which  represents  the  front  and  top  views  of  a  cube  turned  at  60°  and  30°. 
In  drawing  geometric  views  of  objects  showing  oblique  faces,  the  view  that 
shows  a  true  shape  should  be  drawn  first  and  the  other  views  should  be  pro- 
jected from  it.  In  Figs.  142  and  143  the  top  views  were 
drawn,  at  the  proper  angle,  first.  The  width  of  the  front  face 
was  determined  in  both  cases  by  lines  projected  from  the 
angles  of  the  top  view.  In  the  views  of  the  hexagonal  plinth 
(Fig.  144),  the  hexagon  must  be  drawn  first,  as  the  faces  in 
the  top  view  are  foreshortened  and  must  be  projected  from 
points  found  in  the  view  furnishing  a  true  shape.  In  drawing 
views  of  cylindric  objects,  the  circle  should  be  drawn  first 
(Fig.  145). 

Working  drawings  must  be  expressed  by  means  of  con- 
ventions that  have  been  accepted  for  general  use,  because  they 
are  the  most  concise  and  accurate  way  of  conveying  certain 
facts.  These  conventions  or  symbols  vary  slightly  in  usage, 
but  never  to  a  degree  that  would  make  the  meaning  of  the 
drawing  unintelligible.  The  conventional  lines  and  symbols 
used  in  mechanical  drawing  are  shown  in  Fig.  146. 

Dimensioning.     In  working  drawings,  dimensions  are 


I 


Fr^ont  View 

Fig.  145 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


133 


very  important.  The  size  of  each  part 
must  be  indicated  by  plain  figures, 
placed  either  outside  or  inside  the 
drawing,  wherever  they  will  be  most 
readily  understood.  Dimension  lines 
are  drawn  light  with  a  space  left  in 
the  middle  for  the  figures.  Arrow- 
heads are  placed  at  the  ends  of  dimen- 
sion lines  (Fig.  146).  When  there 
is  not  rpom  enough  for  the  arrow- 
heads to  be  drawn,  they  should  be 
placed  outside  (Fig.  147).  When  the 
lines  are  too  close  together  for  the 
figures  to  be  drawn,  as  in  Fig.  148, 
they  should  be  placed  outside.  They 
should  read  from  left  to  right  and 
from  the  bottom  upward.  If  a  dimen- 
sion is  stated  upon  one  view,  it  need 
not  be  repeated  upon  another  view 
unless  the  drawing  should  be  large 
and  the  views  some  distance  apart. 
"Over  all"  dimensions  should  be 
shown  in  a  separate  line  (Fig.  149). 

Drawing   to    Scale.      Working 
drawings  are  seldom  made  the  exact 
size  of  the  object  to  be  constructed. 
They    are   sometimes 
made  larger,  as  in  the 
drawings  from  which 
a  watch  is  to  be  made, 
and,  more  frequently, 
smaller,    as    in    draw- 
ings   that    show    the 
plans    and    elevations 
of  a  house.     The  size 


Visible  ed^es  and  contours 


Inx^zsible     &  d.^  e  .s 


Wbr-Ain^  lines   in  /oencit 


Center'    Lines 


WorAing  or'  jorojecting  Hi 


Z    7' 


Di-mension    lines 


/■ 


134  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

of  the  drawing  is  a  matter  of  convenience,  but  it  is  necessary  that  a  reduced 
or  enlarged  size  be  accurately  drawn  according  to  the  proportion  or  scale 
chosen,  and  that  all  parts  of  a  drawing  be  made  to  the  same  scale.  Draw- 
ings of  ordinary  objects,  if  not  made  full  size,  are  usually  made  \,  \,  \  or  ~^^ 
the  full  size  of  the  object,  and  these  proportions  can,  with  some  calculation, 
be  laid  off  with  an  ordinary  ruler  divided  into  inches,  halves,  quarters,  eighths 
and  sixteenths.  If  a  working  drawing  of  a  box  measuring  i6"  long,  8" 
wide  and  4"  high  were  to  be  made  in  a  scale  one-fourth  full  size,  it  would 
be  easy  to  estimate  the  scale  and  make  the  drawings  4"  x  2"  x  i".  But 
in  case  fractions  are  involved  in  the  measurements,  or  it  is  desired  to  make 
a  drawing  in  some  proportion  not  so  easily  determined,  the  problem  would 
become  involved.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  be  provided  with  a  scale  and 
to  determine  all  reductions  by  its  use.  To  make  a  full-sized  drawing,  a  scale 
divided  into  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch  is  used.  To  make  a  half-sized 
drawing,  a  scale  is  used  on  which  each  six  inches  of  its  length  is  divided 
into  twelve  equal  parts,  each  division  standing  for  one  inch.  Following  the 
same  method,  a  quarter  scale  has  each  three  inches  divided  into  twelve  equal 
parts,  each  part  standing  for  an  inch.  To  make  a  drawing  in  one-eighth  full 
size,  each  inch  and  a  half  on  the  scale  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts,  each 
part  representing  an  inch.  For  a  drawing  one-sixteenth  full  size,  each  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts,  each  part  representing 
an  inch. 

These  proportions  or  reductions  are  indicated  in  the  drawing  thus  : 
"Scale,  Half-Size,"  or  "Scale,  6'  — i  foot";  "Scale,  Quarter-Size,"  or 
"Scale,  3'  — I  foot";  "Scale,  Eighth  Size,"  or  "Scale,  li'  — i  foot,"  etc. 
When  a  drawing  is  made  full  size,  the  statement  would  be  :  "  Scale,  Full 
Size," 

But  sometimes  it  is  necessary  for  drawings  to  be  made  even  smaller 
than  one-sixteenth  actual  size,  as  in  drawings  of  houses,  bridges,  and  of 
machinery.  In  these  cases,  we  may  take  any  measure  as  a  unit.  For 
instance,  one  inch  may  be  taken  to  represent  a  foot,  or  one  half,  one  fourth, 
or  one  eighth  inches  may  represent  a  foot.  The  scale  would  then  be 
stated:  "Scale,  i"=i'";  "Scale,  i"=i'";  "Scale,  i"=iV'  etc. 


i 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


135 


To  Make   Working  Drawings  with  Instruments 


Exercise  I.  To  draw  three  views  of  a  square  prism  standing  verti- 
cally (Fig.  150).  First  draw  the  top  view,  using  the  blade  of  the  T  square 
for  the  horizontal  lines,  and  a  vertical  edge  of  one  of  the  triangles  set 
against  the  upper    edge  of   the 


T  square  for  the  vertical  lines. 
Measurements  are  set  off  with 
a  scale  or  compasses.  From  the 
top  view,  project  downward,  ver- 
tical lines  for  the  vertical  lines 
of  the  front  view.  Measure  off 
the  proper  length,  and  with  the 
T  square  draw  the  horizontals, 
projecting  them  indefinitely  for 
the  side  view.  The  distance 
between  the  front  and  top  views 
should  be  sufficient  to  allow  for 
the  placing  of  any  measure- 
ments without  the  appearance 
of  crowding.  In  order  to  locate 
the  side  view,  place  the  needle 
point  of  the  compass  at  i,  and 
with  a  radius  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance between  the  front  and  top 
views,  as  1-2,  draw  an  arc  that 
will  revolve  point  2  in  the  top  view 
to  its  position  in  the  side  view. 
With  point  i  as  center  and  a 
radius  equal  to  1-3,  revolve  point 
3  in  the  top  view  to  its  position 
in  the  side  view.  2-3  is  the  width 
of  the  side  view.  Complete  the 
rectangle.  Place  the  figures  and 
dimension  lines  as  indicated. 


^—.. 


\ 


/hont  Meto 


Sid^ 


186 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Exercise  II.  To  draw  three  views  of  a  horizontal  hexag- 
onal prism  (Fig.  151).  Draw  the  end  view  first  by  Problem 
XIV,  page  114,  or  with  the  30  and  60  degree  triangle.  Pro- 
ject the  horizontal  lines  in  the  end  view  indefinitely,  thus 
locating  the  horizontal  edges  of  the  front  view.  Locate  the 
vertical  edges  of  the  front  view.  At  i  and  2  erect  perpen- 
diculars to  intersect  the  upper  horizontal  in  A  and  D.  With  E  as  center, 
and  with  radii  DE,  CE,  BE  and  AE,  draw  quarter  circles  to  intersect  pro- 
jected verticals  from  the  front  view.  These  points  locate  the  edges  for  the 
top  view.     Finish  as  shown  in  Fig.  151. 

Exercise  III.  Draw  three  views  of  an  upright,  equilateral  triangular 
prism,  placed  with  one  face  in  front.  In  this  case,  one  edge  is  invisible  and 
must  be  represented  by  a  dash  line. 

Exercise  IV.  Draw  the  same  prism  named  in  the  previous  problem, 
placed  so  that  two  oblique  faces  form  the  front  view. 

Exercise  V.  Draw  three  views  of  an  upright  equilateral  triangular 
prism,  with  the  top  view  at  the  angle  indicated  in  Fig.  152. 

Exercise  VI.  Draw  the  end  and  front  views  of  a  horizontal  hollow 
cylinder.     Indicate  invisible  edges. 

Note.  In  practical  shop-work  only  as  many  viev>-s  of  an  object  are  drawn  as  are  necessary 
to  show  all  the  facts  of  the  object.  Two  views  are  someiimes  sufficient,  but  three  or  four  views 
are  often  required  to  show  the  shape  of  all  the  parts.  In  the  cylinder  but  two  views  are  neces- 
sary,—  the  end  and  front  views  of  a  horizontal  cylinder,  or  the  top  and  front  views  of  the  upright 
cylinder.     Other  views  would  give  no  more  information  regarding  the  facts  of  the  object. 

Exercise  VII.  Draw  three  views  of  the  cylindric  object  shown  in 
Fig.  153.  On  one  end  is  a  square  projection  and  on  the  other  end  is  a 
round  projection.  In  this  case  three  views  are  necessary, — the  front  and 
two  end  views,  —  as  the  front  view  would  not  show  whether  the  projections 
at  the  ends  are  round  or  square. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRA  WING 


137 


Exercise  VIII.  Draw  two 
views  of  a  horizontal  cylinder,  in 
one  end  of  which  is  a  circular 
socket  width  and  depth  one 
eighth  of  the  length  of  the  cylin- 
der. In  the  other  end  is  a  square  p^^ 
socket  of  the  same  dimensions. 

The  end  views  in  this  case  will  be  exactly  the  same  as  the  end  views  in 
Fig.  153.     Show  invisible  edges  in  front  view. 

Exercise  IX.  Draw  front,  top,  and  two  end  views  of  the  object  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  154. 

Exercise  X.  Make  a  working  drawing  showing  three  views  of  a  wall 
bracket.     Choose  your  own  dimensions  and  draw  to  scale. 

Plates  I  and  II  show  a  number  of  joints  used  in  wood-working. 
Working  drawings  may  be  made  from  these  sketches  or  from  actual  joints 
found  in  the  construction  of  furniture  and  in  carpentry.  On  Plate  III, 
page  140,  is  shown  a  working  drawing  of  a  library  table,  drawn  to  scale. 
Sketches  showing  the  construction  of  the  various  parts  are  also  given,  drawn 
in  a  larger  proportion.  These  sketches  are  not  working  drawings,  and  are 
not  to  be  copied.  But  working  drawings  should  be  made  of  these  parts, 
with  the  proper  dimensions  marked  upon  the  drawings.  A  working  drawing 
of  a  kitchen  table  may  be  made  in  a  similar  way,  the  student  either  design- 
ing the  proportions  or  taking  the  measurements  from  the  object.  If  all 
constructions  are  not  made  clear  in  the  views,  detail  drawings  should  be 
made,  giving  the  necessary  information. 

Plates  I,  II,  III  and  IV  show  sketches  which  may  form  the  basis  of 
working  drawings.  These  drawings  must  show,  either  in  views  or  by 
means  of  detail  drawings,  all  the  facts  necessary  for  a  workman  to  know  in 
order  to  construct  the  object.  Students  may  determine  all  measurements 
and  proportions,  stating  them  in  their  proper  places  on  the  drawings. 


Free-hand  Constructive  Drawing 

Although  a  finished  working  drawing  Is  almost  invariably  made  with 
instruments,  it  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  free-hand  drawing  has  no  place 
in  connection  with  construction.     In  practical  life  the  valuable  man  is  the 


138 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Joints  Co  72  nee  ting  Ends. 
JVtitr-e  En  d  L  ap 


End  JVto-rtise  and 
Tenon 


JVtortise  and  Tenon 


J^ouetail 


Jfeyed  Mortise  and 
Tenon 


Gained  Joint} 


B-utt  Joint 
Plain 


ButtJoint      ^ 
Boxjoelled 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


139 


Joints  connectinj^  edgres 

Dovetailed  CorneT        Rabbet  Joint  Ton^e  and  Groove       Xalf  Blind  Dovetailed 

Joint        _  Co-rner 


man  who  can  make  a  design  or  plan  of  some  problem  of  construction. 
These  initial  ideas  are  nearly  always  set  down  on  paper  by  means  of  free- 
hand sketches  and  working  drawings,  which  may  afterward  be  given  to  a 
draughtsman  who  can  work  them  out  carefully  with  instruments,  thus  ren- 
dering the  drawing  accurate,  and  furnishing  all  the  detailed  information  that 
a  workman  must  have.  The  free-hand  sketch  is  the  test  of  a  student's 
understanding  of  the  problem,  and  this  understanding  is  even  more  impor- 
tant than  the  ability  to  use  instruments  with  technical  skill. 

Students  should  be  able  to  sketch  readily  from  any  of  the  objects  con- 
sidered  in  this  chapter,  making  either  pictorial  representations  or  free-hand 
working  drawings,  as  the  problem  demands.  They  should  also  be  able  to 
draw,  with  reasonable  accuracy,  circles,  ellipses,  spirals  and  other  curves, 
rather  than  to  depend  upon  compasses  and  the  French  curve. 


Free-hand  ^Vorking  Drawings 

Exercise     I.  Draw  the  front,  top  and  end  views  of  a  pencil  or  chalk  box. 

Exercise    II.  Draw  the  front  and  top  views  of  a  sphere. 

Exercise  III.  Draw  the  front,  top  and  right  end  views  of  a  horizontal 
cylinder. 

Exercise  IV.  Draw  the  front,  top  and  left  views  of  an  equilateral 
triangular  prism,  placed  with  two  oblique  faces  forming  the  front  view. 

Exercise  V.  Draw  the  top  and  front  views  of  a  square  pyramid, 
turned  at  45°. 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Scale  J^"=f' 
-S-0' 


-^-J- 


11= 

^        ^  1  1  1^        1^ 

PI 

s 
1 

■IJ 

— 

^'    ■*" 

'=-      \^ 

__ 

-3^ 
Details  of  Library  Table 

Drawer  Corners 


Corner 
cons  CructiorL 


End  of  Foot  Rest 
or  shelf 


7~op  ioZe  screwed  on. 


IroLhoer  Pull  ofj-fand 
J-faynmered  Copper* 


End  Rail 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


141 


Exercises y^or*  -LuoTOiing  drau)ings 


Playit  Stand 


Stool 


142 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Exercise  VI.  Draw  the  front  and  top  views  of  a  hexagonal  prism 
standing  upright. 

Exercise  VII.  Make  free-hand  working  drawings,  showing  as  many 
views  as  are  necessary,  of  the  objects  represented  in  Figures  155,  156,  157 
and  158. 


Theory  of  Orthographic  Projection 

Working  drawings  are  usually  based  upon  orthographic  projection. 
Orthographic  projection  is  the  art  of  representing  an  object  by  means  of 
projections  or  views  made  upon  different  planes  at  right  angles  to  one 
another.  In  order  that  the  student  may  understand  the  theory  of  the  preced- 
ing working  drawings,  a  demonstration  should  be  made  by  means  of  the  fol- 
lowing device :  Take  two  panes  of  glass  (the  proportions  suggested  by  the 
sketches  that  follow)  and  lay  the  long  edges  about  a  quarter  inch  apart 
upon  a  strip  of  cloth  |  of  an  inch  wide.  The  cloth  should  have  received  pre- 
viously a  coating  of  glue.  To  make  the  fastening  more  durable,  glue  another 
strip  of  cloth  on  top  of  the  edges,  so  that  the  edges  of  the  glass  are  between 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRA  WING 


a  double  thickness  of  cloth,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  159.  If  these  pieces  of  glass 
are  held  so  that  one  is  vertical  and 
the  other  horizontal,  they  will  repre- 
sent the  imaginary  planes  upon  which 
the  top  and  front  views  of  an  object 
are  supposed  to  be  projected  or  drawn. 
Call  the  vertical  plane,  V,  and  the  hori- 
zontal plane,  H.  The  lines  of  intersec- 
tion of  these  two  planes  is  called  the 
Ground  Line  (G.  L.).  Place  some 
object,  as  a  square  plinth,  behind  V 
and  below  H,  holding  it  so  that  the 
square  faces  are  horizontal  and  paral- 
lel with  H,  and  the  front  face  parallel 
with  V  (Fig.  1 60) .  By  looking  directly 
down  from  above  it  will  be  seen  that 
if  a  tracing  is  made  on  the  glass  fol- 
lowing the  outlines  of  the  top  surface 
of  the  plinth,  the  result  will  be  a 
square.    If  the  planes  are  held  directly 


M 

1 
1 
1 

1 

1 



\         sv. 

II 
II 
II 
II 

144 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


in  front,  so  that  the    center   of   the 

front  face  of   the  phnth    is  opposite 

the  eye,  a  tracing  of  the  outhnes  of 

the  phnth  would  be  an  oblong  (Fig. 

1 60).     To    demonstrate    the   theory 

of  side  views,  fasten  a  piece  of  glass 

to  the  right  edge  and  one  to  the  left 

edge  of  the  vertical  plane,  as  shown 

in  Fig.   161.     Place  these  planes   in 

the  form  of  a  box  open  at  the  back  and  at  the  bottom,  as  shown  in  Fig. 

162.     Within  this  box,  hold  the  plinth  as  before,  and,  looking  through  each 

plane  in  turn,  a  face  of  the  plinth  will  be  seen  on  each  of  the  four  planes. 

If  a  tracing  of  a  face  were  made  on  each  plane,  and  the  group  of  planes 

were  then  spread  out  on  a  fiat  surface,  as  in  Fig.  163,  the  arrangement  of 

views  used  in  working  drawings  would  be  seen.     Eliminating  the  planes, 

the  views  appear  as  in  Fig.  164. 

The  projection  of  lines  may  be  demonstrated  in  a  similar  way.  Place 
the  glass  planes  on  a  board  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  165.  Procure 
a  piece  of  wire,  about  the  size  of  the  lead  in  a  pencil.  Bend  one  inch  of 
this  wire  over,  to  form  a  right  angle.  Bore  a  hole  the  size  of  the  wire 
through  the  middle  of  a  small  smooth  stick  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil,  or 


/      '  . I I \ 

I 1 j -j ^-j j 


I 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


145 


smaller  (Fig. 
i66).  (The 
small  wooden 
skewers  used  in 
meat  shops  are 
ex  eel  1  e  n  t  for 
this    device). 

_^ Place   the    bent 

I 1 1 1 1 1  end  of  the  wire 

through  the  hole 
in  the  stick  (Fig.  167).  Insert  the  straight  end  of  the  wire  into  a  small 
hole  in  the  center  of  the  board  under  the  glass  (Fig.  165).  This  device 
will  permit  the  stick  to  be  turned  at  any  desired  angle. 


First  place  the  stick  in  a  horizontal  position,  parallel  with  both  V  and 
H.  Look  at  it  through  the  planes,  and  the  stick,  which  stands  for  a  line, 
will  appear  as  represented  in  Fig.  168.  It  will  be  seen  that  when  a  line  is 
parallel  with  either  plane,  it  appears  and  would  be  drawn  on  that  plane  in  its 
true  length.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  when  a  line  is  perpendicular  to  one 
of  the  planes  (as  the  pencil  is  perpendicular  to  SV  in 
Fig.  165),  it  appears  as  a  point  on  that  plane. 

Turn  the  stick  on  the  wire  so  that,  while  it  is 
still  horizontal,  it  is  perpendicular  to  V.  It  will 
appear  as  a  point  in  V,  and  as  a  line  on  H  and  SV 

(Fig.    169).  Fig.  166 


146 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


c  — -}--, 1---, 

^^B-\-^ 

B- 

\    .•  -^ 

B- 

1 

S.Y. 

:  / 

/; 

A 

1 

/''    i 

H 

A' 

s.v.  j                   j»-  -  ' 

'^                 1 

A' 

Fig.  171 


Without  regard  to  the  glass  planes,  and 
in  order  to  demonstrate  this  point  still  more 
clearly,  hold  a  pencil  in  a  horizontal  position 
with  the  end  facing  you,  and  draw  its  top, 
front  and  side  views. 

Turn  the  stick  so  that  it  will  be  parallel 
with  V  but  will  make  an  angle  with  H  and 
SV,  and  draw  the  projections  or  views  as  they 
appear  on  the  planes  (Fig.  170).  It  will  be 
seen  that  when  a  line  is  oblique  to  any  one  of 
the  planes,  the  projection  or  view  on  that 
plane  is  foreshortened. 

Turn  the  stick  so  that  it  will  still  be 
horizontal  but  will  make  an  angle  of  about  45° 
with  V.  Its  projection  or  views  will  now  be 
changed.  The  top  view  will  be  a  line,  show- 
ing its  true  length  and  the  true  angle  it  makes 
with  V,  The  front  view  will  be  a  horizontal 
line  foreshortened,  because  it  is  seen  obliquely. 
The  side  view  will  also  be  foreshortened  into 
a  horizontal  line.  Hold  your  pencil  in  this 
position  and  draw  its  different  views. 

Turn  the  stick  so  that  it  will  be  parallel 
to  SV  and  oblique  to  both  the  other  planes. 
The  stick  will  now  appear  in  its  true  length 
on  SV,  and  this  view  will  show  also  the  true 
angle  the  line  makes  with  the  other  two 
planes  (Figs.  171  and  172).  In  cases  like  this, 
the  side  view  must  be  drawn  first,  because  it 
is  that  view  which  shows  the  true  length  of 
the  line. 

Draw  the  views  of  your  pencil  held  so 
that  it  is  parallel  to  SV  and  oblique  to  both 
the  other  planes. 

If  the  stick  is  placed  so  that  it  is  oblique 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


147 


to  all  of  the  planes,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  line 
does  not  appear  in  its  true  length  in  any  view, 
for  all  of  its  views  would  be  foreshortened. 
Neither  will  a  true  angle  be  shown  in  any  view 

(Fig-  173)- 

From  the  foregoing  the  following  principles 
may  be  deduced  :  — 

1.  When  a  line  is  parallel  with  one  of  the 
planes,  whether  real  or  imaginary,  it  appears  in 
its  true  length  on  that  plane. 

2.  When  a  line  is  perpendicular  to  one  of 
the  planes,  it  appears  as  a  point  on  that  plane. 

3.  When  a  line  forms  an  oblique  angle 
with  one  of  the  planes,  it  appears  foreshortened 
on  that  plane. 

4.  W^hen  a  line  is  oblique  to  all  the  planes, 
it  is  foreshortened,  and  does  not  appear  in  its 
true  length  on  any  plane. 

Let  us  review  these  lines  as  they  occur  in 
an    object   with  which  we  are  already  familiar. 

In  the  prism  shown  in  Y\g. 
1 74,  the  line  AE  is  parallel  with 
both  V  and  H,  and  perpendicu- 
lar to  SV.  Therefore,  it  appears 
in  its  true  length  in  the  top  and 
front  views,  and  as  a  point  in 
the  end  view.  The  line  CB  is 
parallel  with  H  and  SV,  and  is 
perpendicular  to  V.  It  appears 
in  its  true  length  in  the  top  and 

side  views,  and  as  a  point  in  the  front  view.  The  lines  AC  and  AB  are 
parallel  with  SV,  but  make  oblique  angles  with  both  V  and  H.  They  appear 
in  their  true  length  in  the  side  view,  and  are  foreshortened  in  both  the  other 
views  (Fig.  175). 

The  square  pyramid  (Fig.  176)  offers  another  example  of  lines  and  faces 


148 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


u^" 

E' 
E 

X-'' 

x 

1             '              '' 

-  ■  ^ 

1 

;    a\e'   \ 

}/^. 

c 

E 

V 

oblique    to    the 
planes    upon 
which  they  must 
b  e     represented. 
T  h  e    lines    AB, 
AC,  AD  and  AE 
are  oblique  to  all 
the    planes,    and 
are  therefore  fore- 
shortened   in    all 
the    views.      To 
find    the    true 
length    of    a    line 
in    this    position, 
the  line  must  be 
revolved    until   it 
is  parallel  with  one  of  the  planes  of  projection.     With  A  as  center  and  AB 
as  radius,  revolve  point  B  until  the  line  used  as  radius  is  parallel  with  V, 
and  the  point  B"  is  found.     The  point  B"  when  projected  to  its  position  in 
the  front  view,  will  be  B'  ",  and  the  line  A'  B'  "  will  be  the 
true  length  of  the  line  AB,  which  is  one  of  the  long 
edges  of  the  square  pyramid.    This  process  of  revolving 
a  point  until  the  line  is  parallel  with  one  of  the  planes 
is  equivalent  to  turning  the  object  one  quarter  around. 
When  drawing  the  developed  surface  or  pattern  of  a 
square  pyramid,   it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  true 
length  of  edges,  as  shown  in  Fig.  240. 

From  the  foregoing  examples  deductions  may  be 
made  by  which  the  true  length  of  a  line  may  be  found 
when  it  makes  angles  with  both  V  and  H.  With 
either  end  of  the  line  in  either  view  as  center,  and 
with  the  length  of  the  projection  or  view  of  the  line  as 
radius,  revolve  the  other  end  of  the  line  until  the  line 
is  parallel  with  the  ground  line.  Draw  the  other  view 
of  the  point  revolved,  and  connect  the  points  as  shown 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


in     Figures     177, 
178,  179  and  180. 

Exercise  I. 
Find  the  true 
length  of  the  Hnes  ^~ 
shown  in  Figures 
181,  182,  183  and 
184. 

Exercise      II.  t;,     ,0 

Fig.  18 

Find    the    true 

length  of  the  line  AB  in  Fig. 

185. 

To  draw  oblique  views  of 
an  object ;  for  example,  the 
square     pyramid,    the     base 


\ A/ 


150 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


inclined    at  45°.     Obtain 
the  front  and  top   views 
of  the  pyramid,  as  shown 
in    I     and    2,    Fig.    186. 
Letter  all  points,  bearing 
in  mind    that  the  letters 
in  the    front    view    must 
fall    directly    under    the 
corresponding    letters    in 
the   top    view.      At    the 
right    of  the    front    view 
repeat  the  drawing  at  an 
angle  of  45°,  as  shown  in 
3,  Fig.  186.     Place  letters 
in   3  to    correspond  with 
the  letters  in  2.     Project 
the    points    in    i    to    the 
right,    and    project    the 
points    from     3     upward 
until    they    intersect    the 
lines    from     i.       For    in- 
stance, the  intersection  of 
the  lines    projected  from 
A  in  I  with  the  line  pro- 
jected from  A"  in  3  will 
give  A'  "  in  4.     Repeat 
with    all    other    points, 
and    finish    the    drawing. 
The    student    will    be 
greatly  assisted  if  he  has 
the  model  and  can  hold  it 
^'°"  ^^  in  the  position  indicated. 

Exercise  III.     Draw    corresponding  views  of  a  square  prism.     (Figs. 

187  and  188.) 

Exercise    IV.      Draw    the    corresponding    views    of    an    equilateral 


COXS  TR  UC  TIVE  DRA  WING 


151 


Draw  the  same  views  of  a  hexagonal  prism,  inclined  at  the 


triangular  prism,  inclined  at  30°  and  60°,  and  draw  also  the  side  view  as 
shown  in  Fig.  189.      (Not  completed.) 

Exercise   F.     Draw  the  same  views  of  a  square  pyramid,  inclined  at 
the  same  angle. 

Exercise  VI. 
same  angle. 

E  X  e  rcise 
VII.  Draw  the  ^ 
same  views  of  a 
cylinder,  in- 
clined  at  30° 
and  60°  (Fig. 
190.  Not  com- 
pleted.) 

Note:     In 

drawing  oblique 
views  of  a  circular 
surface  it  is  neces- 
sary to  establish 
certain  points  which 
may    be    projected 


152 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


/^'~'' 

: 

//^' 

'^:---1 

/ 

/■:   ' 

' '  '■  >_; -1 

, \ 

VV' 

1 '   1;/'  7       ' 

> 
ii 

from  one  view  to  corresponding  views.  To  do  this,  divide  tlie  circle  into  twelve  (or  more)  equal 
parts,  as  shown  in  i,  and  project  the  points  to  the  front  view.  Transfer  the  points  to  3,  and 
proceed  as  in  the  foregoing  examples. 

Exercise  VIIL  Draw  the  same  views  of  a  cone.  Notice  that  the 
contour  lines  from  A'"  (Fig.  191)  are  drawn  tangent  to  the  elHpse  and 
not  to  the  ends  of  the  diameter. 

Exercise  IX.  Draw  the  top  and  side  views  of  a  circular  plinth,  whose 
circular  faces  are  perpendicular  to  V,  and  at  an  angle  of  30°  with  H  (Fig.  192). 

Exercise  X.  Draw  the  front,  top  and  side  views  of  the  objects  repre- 
sented in  Figures  193,  194  and  195. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


1.-3 


Cutting-planes,  Intersections  of  Solids  and  Developments 

It  is  often  necessary  to  show  in  a  draw- 
ing some  part  of  an  object  that  cannot  be 
seen  on  the  outside  of  the  object.  In  order 
that  the  interior  construction  may  be  seen, 
the  object  is  supposed  to  be  cut  by  a  plane, 
called  a  cutting-plane,  and  one  part  removed. 
When  the  cutting-plane  is  parallel  with  the 
axis  of  the  object  the  section  found  is  called 
a  longitudinal  section.  When  it  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  axis  the  section  found  is  called 
a  transverse  section.  When  it  is  oblique  to 
the  axis  the  section  is  called  an  oblique  sec- 
tion. These  sections  can  be  illustrated  in  a 
very  simple  way.  If  we  cut  an  apple  down 
through  its  center  we  pass  a  vertical  plane 
through  it.  Removing  one  half,  and  looking 
directly  at  the  part  freshly  cut,  we  see  the 
longitudinal  section,  as  represented  in  Fig. 

196.  If  we  cut  an  apple  by  a  horizontal 
plane  (using  the  knife  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis)  and  remove  the  upper  half,  we  find  the 
transverse    section,   as  represented    in   Fig. 

197.  If  we  pass  the  knife  through  an  apple 
at  an  angle  which  is  oblique  to  the  axis  we 
shall  find  an  oblique  section,  as  represented 
in  Fig.  198.  These  sections  show  the  true 
shape  of  the  apple  at  the  place  where  it  is 
cut.  They  show  also  the  arrangement  of 
the  seeds,  and  the  growth  of  the  core,  and 
thus  give  a  better  idea  of  the  structure  of  ^"^"  ^^^ 

the  apple  than  could  have  been  gained  by  a  study  of  the  outside  alone. 

Note:  Sections  that  show  the  interior  growth  or  construction  of  other  objects, such  as  a 
seed-pod,  any  fruit  or  vegetable,  a  branch  of  a  tree,  etc.,  may  be  sketched,  showing  the  result 
of  longitudinal,  transverse  and  oblique  cutting -planes.  The  section  in  a  drawing  is  indicated 
by  covering  the  surface  with  light  parallel  lines,  usually  at  an  angle  of  45°. 


154 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


A 

\ 

; 

B 

A 

c 

1 

B' 

^B 

The  true  shape  of  the  section  of  a  sphere  cut  by  any  plane,  is  a  circle 
(Fig.  199).  A  cyhnder  when  cut  parallel  with  its  base,  shows  a  section 
whose  shape  is  a  circle  (Fig.  200).  A  cylinder  when  cut  parallel  with 
its  axis,  shows  a  section  whose  shape  is  a  parallelogram  (Fig.  201). 

A  cylinder  when  cut  oblique  to  its  axis,  shows  a  section  whose  shape  is 
an  ellipse  (Fig.  202).  An  oblique  sectional  view  is  revolved  90°  upon  an 
axis  parallel  to  the  cutting-plane.  This  is  done  in  order  that  the  true 
shape  of  the  section  may  be  projected  from  the  cutting-plane  shown  in 
Fig.  202. 

A  cone  when  cut  by  a  plane  coinciding  with  its  axis,  shows  a  section 
whose  shape  is  a  triangle  (Fig.  203),  when  cut  parallel  with  its  base,  the 
section  is  a  circle  (Fig.  204),  when  cut  oblique  to  its  axis,  so  that  all  the 
elements^  of  the  cone  are  cut,  the  section  is  an  ellipse  (Fig.  205).  When 
cut  parallel  with  one  of  its  elements,  the  section  will, be  bounded  by  a  para- 
bola^ (Fig.  206).    If  a  cone  is  intersected  by  a  plane  which  makes  a  greater 

1  Any  straight  line  drawn  on  the  surface  of  a  cone  and  passing  through  the  apex,  as  AB  and  AC 
(Fig.  205)  is  called  an  element. 

-  The  curve  formed  by  the  intersection  of  a  cone  by  a  plane,  parallel  to  one  of  its  elements  is  called 
a  parabola,  as  the  curve  B"  A"  C"  in  Fig.  206. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


155 


156 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


I 


angle  with  the  base  than  do  the  elements,  the  section  is  bounded  by  a 
hyperbola  1  (Fig.  207). 

When  a  prism  is  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  with  its  bases,  the  section  is 
the  same  shape  as  the  base  (Fig.  208) ;  when  cut  parallel  with  its  axis,  the 
section  is  a  parallelogram  (Fig.  209) ;  when  cut  oblique  to  its  axis,  the 
section  is  an  irregular  polygon  (Fig.  210).  When  a  pyramid  is  cut  by  a 
plane  coinciding  with  its  axis,  the  section  is  a  triangle  (Fig.  211);  when 
cut  parallel  with  its  base,  the  section  is  the  same  shape  as  the  base  (Fig. 
212);  when  cut  oblique  to  its  axis,  the  section  is  an  irregular  polygon 
(Fig.  213). 

Sometimes  a  section  shows  two  adjoining  pieces  of  material,  and  when 
this  is  so,  the  different  pieces  are  indicated  by  lines  drawn  at  45°  in  differ- 
ent directions,  as  in  Fig.  214.  If  more  than  two  pieces  are  shown  in  the 
section,  lines  drawn  at  other  angles,  as  30°  and  60",  may  be  used  (Fig.  215). 

'When  the  cutting-plane  intersects  the  base  of  a  cone  and  is  not  parallel  to  any  element  the  curve 
of  intersection  is  called  a  hyperbola,  as  the  curve  B"  A"  C"  (Fig.  207). 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


157 


Fig.  211 


^ 


:=!a!L 


Fig.  212 


158 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Section  lines  representing  the 
same  piece,  however,  must 
always  appear  at  the  same 
angle  in  any  part  of  that  piece. 

Exercise  I.  Show  a 
longitudinal  section  of  a  hol- 
low cylinder  cut  by  a  plane 
coinciding  with  its  axis. 

Exercise  II.  Show  a 
transverse  section  of  a  hol- 
low cylinder  cut  by  a  plane 
perpendicular  to  its  axis. 

Exercise  III.  Show  an 
oblique  section  of  a  cylinder 
cut  by  a  plane  at  30°  with  its 
axis.  Fig.  202  shows  the 
process  of  obtaining  the  sec- 
tion of  a  cylinder  cut  by  a 
plane  at  45°.  Lines  are 
drawn  from  points  A,  B  and 
C  perpendicular  to  the  plane 
AC.  A'C  is  drawn  parallel 
to  AC.  B'D'  is  drawn  equal 
to  the  diameter  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  ellipse  may  be 
drawn  by  Problem  XXXI, 
or  as  shown  in  Fig.  236. 

Exercise  IV.  Fig.  216 
shows  the  front  and  top 
views  of  a  jack-plane  with  the 
longitudinal  section.  Draw  a 
ie  block-plane,    showing    similar 

^'^-  218  views  and  sections. 

Note:  Bolts  and  small  round  spindles  are  not  usually  sectioned.    See  Fig.  217  and  the 
drawings  on  page  171. 


^EE3 


3 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRA  WING 


159 


M 


-^/^^ 

pai 

^ 

Exercise  V.  Fig.  217  shows  the  front 
and  end  views  of  an  ice-pick,  with  a  longi- 
tudinal section.  Draw  similar  views  of  a 
screw-driver. 

Exercise  VI.  Fig.  218  shows  a  side 
view  of  a  spigot.  Draw  the  sections  as 
they  would  appear  if  cut  on  AB  and  on  CD. 

Exercise  VII.  Draw  the  front  and 
end  views  of  the  oil-stone  shown  in  Fig.  219, 
and  show  a  transverse  section. 

Exercise  VIII.  Draw  the  front  and 
end  views  of  an  ordinary  tack-hammer  and 
a  transverse  section  of  the  handle  at  its 
greatest  width.  ^'«-  220 

Note :  Transverse  sections  are  sometimes  shown  on  one  of  tlie  views,  instead  of  appearing 
in  a  separate  drawing  (Fig.  220). 

The  Development  of  Surfaces 

When  objects  are  made  of  sheet  material,  such  as  paper,  cloth,  leather, 
tin,  sheet  iron,  copper,  etc.,  the  entire  surface  has  first  to  be  laid  out  flat 
and  then  folded,  rolled  or  moulded  into  the  required  form.  The  surfaces  of 
objects  whose  faces  are  flat,  such  as  prisms  and  pyramids,  and  of  those  that 
curve  in  but  one  direction,  as  the  cylinder  and  cone,  can  be  drawn  in  a  flat 
pattern,  or  developed.  When  a  surface  is  curved  in  more  than  one  direc- 
tion, a  pattern  may  be  made  that  will  approximate  the  surface,  and  may  then 
be  stretched  or  compressed  into  shape.  A  ball,  for  instance,  may  be  covered 
with  leather  which  may  first  be  cut  from  a  pattern  and  then,  by  wetting  and 
shaping,  be  made  to 
ft  closely  (Fig. 
221).  A  bowl  may 
be  hammered  into 
shape  from  a  flat 
piece  of  copper 
(Fig.  222). 

The     simplest 
forms    from    which  -pio.  221 


160 


ART  EDUCATIOX—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


\ 

\ 

1 

patterns  may  be  developed  are  the 
geometric  solids.  The  six  faces  of 
the  cube,  for  example,  may  be  laid  out 
as  indicated  in  Fig.  223.  Laps  are 
added  so  that  the  pattern  may  be  cut 
out,  folded  and  pasted  to  form  a  hol- 
low cube.  In  a  similar  way,  patterns 
for  the  square,  triangular  and  hexag- 
onal prisms  may  be  developed. 

Exercise  I.  Make  a  pattern  for 
a  box  4"  long,  2i"  wide  and  i^"  deep. 
Exercise  II.  Make  a  cover  ^" 
deep,  to  fit  the  box  made  in  Exercise  I.  If  stiff  paper  is  the  material  used, 
the  cover  should  be  made  the  width  of  a  pencil  line  larger  than  the  box.  If 
cardboard  is  used,  the  cover  should  be  made  the  thickness  of  the  cardboard 
larger  on  each  side.  Before  folding  thick  paper  or  cardboard  the  edges 
should  be  scored. 

Exercise  III.     Develop  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  2"  in  diameter  and 

_  4"  long. 

Demonstration : 
the  ends  of  the  cylin- 
der are  circles  (C  and 
C,  Fig.  224).  The 
curved  surface  of  the 
cylinder,  i  f  unrolled, 
would  form  a  rectangle 
as  wide  as  the  cylinder 
is  long  and  as  long  as 
the  distance  around  the 
cylinder.  To  find  this 
distance,  divide  the 
circle  into  any  number 
of  equal  parts,  as  24 
(Problem  XII).  Meas- 
ure 5^5  with  the  dividers. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


161 


and  step  off  this  distance  twenty-four  times  on  a 
horizontal  line.  The  entire  distance  thus  set  off 
will  represent  the  circumference  of  the  cylinder. 
To  make  a  hollow  cylinder,  leave  a  lap  at  one 
end  of  this  rectangle  and  on  the  edges  that  are 
to  be  pasted  to  the  circular  ends,  as  in  B,  Fig. 

224.     Score    1-2    and   3-4,  but  not  2-4.     To __ 

make  the  paper  construction  more  perfect,  two    |  '  ''■''- 

circular  pieces  should   be    pasted   at  each  end, 

one  inside  and  one  outside.     The  inside  circle 

will  keep  the  cylinder  round,  and  the  outside  one  will  cover 

Exercise  IV.  Make  a  pattern  for  a  tin  cup,  3"  in 
high.  Draw  a  well-shaped  handle  and  space  it  off  with  the 
the  strip  of  paper  as  long  as  the  handle  (Fig.  225). 

Exercise  V.     Develop  the  surface  of  a  cone.     Divide 
cone  into  a  number  of  equal  parts,  as  in  the  cylinder.     I 
ever,  these  parts  are  not  set  off  on  a  horizontal  line,  but 
radius  of  which  is  the  slant  height  of  the  cone.  Fig.  226. 

Note.  In  de- 
veloping surfaces 
it  is  best  to  draw 
first  the  views  of 
the  object. 

Exercise 
VI.  Develop 
the  surface  of 
the  frustum 
of  a  cone 
(Fig.  227). 
Produce  the 
sides  until 
they  meet  at 
the  apex  of 
the  cone  at  A, 
and  proceed 
as  in  the  case 
of   the    cone. 


3 


Fig.  225 


the  laps. 


diameter  and  2" 
dividers,  making 

the  base  of  the 
n  the  cone,  how- 
upon  an  arc,  the 


162 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Exercise  VII.     Make  a  pattern  for  the 
lamp-shade  shown  in  Fig.  228. 

Exercise  VIII.     Develop  the  surface  of  a 

square  pyramid.     Draw  the  top  view  with  the 

sides  of  the  base  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the 

vertical  plane  (Fig.  229).     In  the  front  view 

the  line  A'  C  is  not  its  true  length,  but  the  line 

Fig.  228  A'  B',  which  is  parallel  with  V,  is.      We  can, 

therefore,  take  the  line  A'  B'  or  A'  D'  for  a 

radius  and  draw  an  arc  of  a  circle  (Fig.  230).      Set  off  the  sides  of  the  base 

on  this  arc,  and  connect  these  points  with  straight  lines.     On  any  one  of 

these  lines  draw  a  square  equal  to  the  base  of  the  pyramid. 

To  make  the  pattern  of  a  frustum  of  a  pyramid  (Fig.  231),  produce 
the  sides  to  form  a  pyramid  and  proceed  as  in  the  case  of  the  pyramid.  If 
the  frustum  is  inverted  it  may  be  developed  in  the  same  way. 

Exercise  IX.  Make  a  pattern  for  a  square  pan,  shown  in  Fig.  232. 
Method  shown  in  Fig.  233. 

Exercise  X.     Make  a  pattern  for  a  pan  3"  long  and  2"  wide  at  the 


A 

/  \ 

/           \ 

/             \ 

CONSTRUCTIVE   DRA  WING 


bottom  The  sides  are  i"  wide,  and  slant 
outward  at  an  angle  of  120°  with  the  bottom. 

Exercise  XL  Draw  the  top  and  front 
views  and  the  developed  surface  of  a  vertical 
square  prism,  cut  by  a  plane  at  45°  with  its 
axis  (Fig.  234).  Two  of  these  sections  put 
together  will  make  an  elbow  in  a  square  pipe 
(Fig.  235  rt  and  b). 

Exercise  XII.  Draw  the  top  and 
front  views  and  the  developed  surface  of  an 
equilateral  triangular  prism,  cut  by  a  plane 
at  45°  with  its  axis. 

Exercise  XIII.  Draw  the  top  and  front 
vicAvs  and  the  developed  surface  of  a  hexag- 
onal prism  cut  by  a  plane  at  45°  with  its  axis. 


\ 


I 


164 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Exercise  XI V.  Draw  the  top  and 
front  views  and  the  developed  surface 
of  a  square  prism  standing  with  its 
vertical  faces  at  45°  with  V.  The  cut- 
ting-plane enters  the  prism  at  an  angle 
of  45°. 

Exercise  X  V.  Draw  the  top  and 
front  views  and  the  developed  surface 

of  a  cylinder  cut  by  a  plane  at  45°  with  its  axis  (Fig.  236).     Two  of  these 

together  make  an  elbow  of  a  stove-pipe  (Fig.  237). 


Exercise  XVI.     Draw  the  same  views,  with  developments,  of  a  cylinder 

cut  by  a  plane  at  60°  with 
its  axis.  Make  a  jointed 
pipe,  as  shown  in  Fig.  238. 
Exercise  X  VII . 
Make  a  pattern  for  the  can, 
with  cover,  shown  in  Fig. 

239- 

Exercise  X  J  VII.   Draw 
the  views  and  the  developed 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRAWING 


165 


surface  of  a  square  pyramid  standing 
vertically,  the  sides  of  the  base  mak- 
ing angles  of  45°  with  V.  The 
pyramid  is  cut  by  a  plane  oblique  to 
its  axis.  Show  the  true  shape  of 
the  section  (Fig.  240). 

Demonstration  :  Letter  the 
points  where  the  cutting-plane  cuts 
the  edges  of  the  pyramid  in  the 
front  view,  F,  G,  H  and  I.  To 
show  where  the  plane  cuts  the  edges 
in  the  top  view,  project  lines  upward 
from  F  and  H,  obtaining  points  F' 
and  H'  in  the  top  view.  To  find 
points  G'  and  I'  in  the  top  view, 
draw  a  line  through  G  parallel  with 

the  base  of  the  pyramid,  to  cut  lines  A'B'  and  A'D'  in  points  J  and  K.     It  is 
evident  that  the  width  of  the  pyramid  at  this  point  is  equal  to  JK  ;  therefore, 


166 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


make  G'l'  in  the 
top  view  equal  to 
JK. 

To  find  the 
true  shape  of  the 
section,  draw  lines 
from  F,  G,  H  and 
I,  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  FH. 
Draw  F'H' parallel 
with  FH.  Make 
,-'  G"I"  equal  to  JK, 
and  F"G"H"I"  will 
be  the  true  shape 
of  the  section. 

T  o  develop 
the  surface  of  the 
truncated    pyra- 

FiG.  242  Fig.  243  -j  /Tr-  .  \ 

mid,  (Fig.  241.) 
With  radius  A'B'  or  A'D',  which  is  the  true  length  of  the  edge  A'B', 
describe  an  arc  of  a  circle.  On  this  arc  set  off  the  sides  of  the  base  of  the 
pyramid,  in  points  B"',  C'",  D'",  E'"  and  B"".  Make  A'"F"'  and  A"'F""  equal 
to  A'F,  and  A'"  H'"  equal  to  A'H.  As  the  line  A'G  and  the  line  behind  it, 
A'l,  are  oblique  to  both  V  and  H,  they  are  not  shown  in  their  true  length. 
This  may  be  found  as  in  Fig.  176,  page  148,  but  the  line  A'J  is  the  true  length 
of  the  line  A'G'  and  A'l;  therefore  make  A"'G'"  and  A'"!'"  equal  to  A'J. 

Exercise  XIX.  Draw  two  views  and  the  developed  surface  of  a  square 
pyramid  standing  with  one  of  its  triangular  faces  directly  in  front  of  the 
observer.  Cut  the  pyramid  by  a  plane  making  an  angle  of  30°  with  its  base 
(Fig.  242). 

Note  :  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  lines  AB,  AC,  etc.,  are  not  shown  in  their  true 
length.  To  obtain  the  true  length  of  line  A'B'  and  A'C  refer  to  demonstration  of  Fig.  176. 
page  148. 

Exercise  XX.  Draw  two  views  of  a  cone  cut  by  an  oblique  plane  (Fig. 
243).     Show  the  true  shape  of  the  section.     In  the  top  view,  the  distance 


CONS  TR  UC  TI VE   DRA  WING 


167 


HT  is  equal  to  the  distance  MN  in  the  front  view.  The  reason  for  this 
may  be  understood  by  referring  to  the  demonstration  illustrated  in  Fig.  240. 
To  find  the  section,  the  distance  H"I"  is  transferred  from  HT  in  the  top 
view,  J"K"  is  transferred  from  J'K'  in  the  top  view,  and  the  other  widths  in 
like  manner,  because  these  distances  appear  in  their  true  length  in  the  top 
view.  Only  the  two  outside  lines  A'B'  and  A'D'  are  shown  in  their  true 
length.     Develop  the  surface  of  the  lower  part  of  the  cone. 

Exercise  XXI.     Draw  the  top,  front  and  side  views  of  a  hexagonal 
pyramid,  cut  by  a  plane  at  60°  with  its  base. 


Machine  Details 

The  various  mechanical  devices  for  the  production  of  motion,  such  as 
the  lever,  crank,  eccentric,  cam,  pulley  and  gear,  enter  very  largely  into 
machinery,  and  therefore  into  the  making  of  drawings  showing  the  con- 
struction and  details  of  machinery.  In  such  work  the  general  language  of 
working  drawings  is  employed,  and  some  of  the  more  common  details  of 
machinery  are  given  here  in  order  to  show  the  various  conventions  used 
and  the  usual  way  of  representing  such  objects. 

Cranks.       The  

crank    is  a    lever    used  '      '      ' 

mostly  to  obtain  rotary 
motion,  or  to  convert 
straight  motion  into 
rotary  motion,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  steam  engine  ; 
or  to  convert  rotary 
motion  into  straight 
motion,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  jig-saw.  The  length 
of  a  crank  is  the  dis- 
tance between  the  cen- 
ter of  the  shaft  and 
the    center   of    the    pin 

(Fig.  244)-     The  throw  ^^^.^^  ^^^^^ 

of  a  crank  is  twice  the  Fia.  244 


168 


ART  EDUCATION-— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  246 


length  of  the  crank  (Fig.  245). 
Figs.  244,  246,  247  and  248 
show  some  of  the  common 
forms  of  cranks.  For  practice 
in  drawing,  select  similar  parts, 
and  make  working  drawings 
directly  from  them. 

Eccentrics.  The  eccentric 
is  another  form  of  crank,  and  is 
used,  principally,  to  slide  the 
valve  in  a  steam-engine.  The 
complete  eccentric  has  two  parts, 
the  eccentric  (Fig.  249)  and  the 
strap  (Fig.  250).  The  student 
may  draw  two  views  of  the  eccen- 
tric and  strap  when  connected. 

Screws.  The  screw,  which 
is  based  on  the  principle  of  the 
inclined  plane  applied  to  a  cylin- 
der, is  used  for  raising  weights, 
and  for  fastening  parts  together. 
The  motion  is  uniform,  and  in  a 
plane  parallel  with  the  axis  of 
the  cylinder.  The  threads  on  a 
screw  are  usually  V  shaped  or 
square  (Figs.  251  and  252).  In 
the  V  thread,  the  pitch  is  the 
space  between  threads,  and  in  the 
square  thread  the  pitch  includes 
a  thread  and  a  space.  In  either 
case,  the  pitch  represents  the  dis- 
tance the  screw  would  move  dur- 
ing one  revolution.  The  most 
common  forms  of  bolts,  screws 
and  nuts  are  shown  on  page  171. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


169 


Figure  253  shows  the  method  of  drawhig  a  V-thread  screw.  Let  the 
diameter  be  5"  and  the  pitch  i".  Draw  the  front  view  of  the  cylinder,  as 
ABCD.  On  AB  describe  a  semicircle,  A3B.  Set  off  the  pitch  AE  and 
divide  it  into  any  number  of  equal  j^arts,  as  twelve.  Through  these  points 
draw  lines  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder.  Divide  the  semicircle 
A3B  into  six  equal  parts.  Project  lines  from  i,  2,  3,  4  and  5  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  cylinder.  The  intersection  of  these  lines  with  the  lines  that  divide 
the  pitch  will  give  the  points  i',  2',  3',  4'  and  5',  through  which  the  required 
curve  of  the  thread  may  be  drawn.      Sketch  this  curve  with  the  free  hand. 


Fig.  249 


Eccentric  Fiod 


With  the  dividers  set  equal  to  the  pitch,  locate  points  i",  2",  3",  4"  and  5" 
above  i',  2',  3',  etc.  In  a  similar  way,  set  the  dividers  equal  to  two  pitches, 
and  locate  points  above  i",  2",  3",  etc.  Repeat  this  operation,  always 
measuring  from  i',  2',  3',  etc.  The  curve  obtained  by  this  process  is  called 
a  helix.  With  the  60"  triangle  and  the  T  square  draw  the  lines  EG  and 
AG,  obtaining  point  G,  and  EH  and  KH,  obtaining  point  H.  These  points 
locate  the  root  of  the  thread.  Through  G  and  H  draw  lines  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  cylinder,  cutting  the  line  AB  in  points  I  and  J.  Draw  another 
semicircle  on  IJ,  and  find  the  points  for  the  inner  curve.  When  the 
curves  have  been  carefully  drawn  with  the  free  hand,  use  the  Erench  curve 
to  finish. 

Eigure  254  shows  the  method  of  drawing  the  square-thread  screw.     The 
width  and  depth  of  the  groove  is  equal  to  the  thread  or  half  the  pitch. 


170 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  251 


^'^ 


\ 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


171 


^olts,  Scr'euxs  and  Nuts 


Machine    JSolt 
Saziara  or  Aexczyo-naL-Aeati 


/■    \^     •'-v^'N 


Thfi  £oJ.t 


Stud   £oZt 


SAaft 


Carriage  Solt 


HotindL-hsad.         CotxnfersrnA     -Cay  Sct^ki 
'~''  I'Laf-ZLca-cC  ^  ■M 


•Set   Serena 


172 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


In  practice,  the  curves  of  screw  threads  are  not 
worked  out,  but  are  represented  by  the  convention  of 
straight  lines,  shown  in  Figs.  251  and  252.  In  the 
case  of  small  screws  and  bolts  the  convention  is  as 
shown  in  Fig.  255. 

Note  :  For  tables  giving  the  number  of  threads  to  the  inch, 
sizes  of  bolt-heads  and  nuts  in  proportion  to  the  diameter  of  the  bolt, 
and  for  other  information  of  this  kind  the  student  should  consult 
some  standard  work  on  Mechanics. 


To  draw  the  thread  on  a  bolt.  Let  AB  (Fig. 
256)  be  the  diameter  of  a  i"  bolt.  From  a  table  of 
standard  threads,  it  will  be  seen  that  there  should  be 
eight  threads  to  an  inch.  Lay  off  i"  on  the  line  AD 
and  divide  it  into  eight  equal  parts,  each  part  represent- 
ing the  pitch  of  the  screw.  Through  points  i,  2,  3, 
etc.,  draw  light  parallel  lines  at  an  inclination  equal  to 
one  half  the  pitch,  as  shown  in  Fig.  256.  From  A 
and  B,  lay  off  the  points  E  and  F,  equal  to  the  pitch. 
Through  points  E  and  F,  draw  lines  parallel  to  AD  and 
BC.  This  makes  the  roots  of  the  threads.  Draw  the 
heavy  lines  halfway  between  the  light  parallels. 

In  drawing  screw  threads,  the  lines  must  slant  up- 
ward to  the  right  for  a  right-hand  screw,  and  downward 
to  the  right  for  a  left-hand  screw. 
In  practice,  draughtsmen  do  not  space  off  to  get  the  exact  number  of 
threads  to  the  inch,  but  it  is  well  for  the  student  to  do  this  until  he  is  accus- 
tomed to  the  right  spacing. 

The  size  of  bolt-heads  and  nuts  is  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  bolt. 
The  proportion  varies  in  different  bolts,  and  also  in  different  shops,  but 
those  proportions  most  commonly  used  are  given  as  follows  :  Let  D  equal 
the  diameter  of  the  bolt.  The  short  diameter  of  the  nut  and  bolt  is  equal  to 
\\  D  plus  \  of  an  inch  (i^  D  +  |").  The  thickness  of  the  nut  is  equal  to  D. 
The  thickness  of  the  head  (square  or  hexagonal)  is  equal  to  |  of  D  plus  is 
of  an  inch  (i  D  +  ^V")- 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


173 


To  draw  the  square  head  or  nut.  Draw  the  top  view  A  and  the 
front  view  B  (Fig.  257).  With  radius  equal  to  twice  D,  draw  the  curve 
1-2-3.  Draw  the  top  view  C.  To  find  the  points  necessary  in  completing 
the  drawing,  project  the  points  over  from  the  front  view,  B,  and  down  from 
tlie  top  view,  C.     This  process  was  explained  under  Projections. 

To  draw  a  hexagonal  bolt-head  and  nut,  turned  so  as  to  show 
three  faces  of  the  head  and  nut,  the  thickness  of  the  bolt  being  given. 


174 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


(Fig.  258.)  Draw  the  circle  A, 
with  diameter  equal  to  the  diam- 
eter of  the  bolt.  With  the  same 
center  draw  a  circle  whose 
diameter  is  \\  times  D -j- i". 
Through  A,  project  to  the  right, 
the  axis  line  of  the  bolt.  About 
the  second  circle,  circumscribe  a 
1  3xag'on,  making  one  of  its  sides, 
as  EC,  perpendicular  to  the  axis 
of  the  bolt.  Draw  the  front  view 
of  the  bolt,  projecting  the  neces- 
sary lines  for  the  head  and  nut 
from  the  end  view.  Make  the 
thickness  of  the  head  ec|ual  to 
%D  plus  yV">  ^i''d  the  thickness 
of  the  nut  equal  to  D.  Estab- 
lish E  by  laying  off  D  from  H, 
on  the  axis  line.  With  E  as 
center  and  a  radius  equal  to  D, 
describe  the  arc  1-2.  Draw  a 
line  through  1-2,  extending  it 
in  both  directions  to  find  points 
3  and  4.  Bisect  the  sides  of  the 
hexagon  in  points  5  and  6,  and 
project  from  these  points  lines 


CONSTRUCTIVE   DRAWING 


175 


L  -  \-  -  'Arm 


Bore 


Hub 


'  -ftim 


Cyovun 


>Stra  i^h  t 


intersecting  tlie  line  3-4  in  7  and  8.  Find 
the  center  for  the  curves  1-9-3  and  2-10-4 
by  Problem  XXII,  Ex.  I.  Complete  the 
curves,  and  draw  the  line  9-10  tangent  to 
the  curves. 

Cams.      It  will  be  seen  that  the  motions 
produced  by  the  crank,  eccentric  and  screw, 
are  regular.     The  cam  is  a  device  by  which 
either  regular   or   irregular   motion    may  be 
obtained.  '  The  cam  is  based  on  the  principle 
of  the  inclined  plane  applied  to  a  cylinder  or 
disc.     If  the  inclined  plane  A  (Fig.  259)  is 
applied  to  the  periphery  of 
j*~  ^  "H      the    cylinder    or    circular 
disc  B,  and  the  whole  made 
to  revolve  in  the  direction 
of   the  arrow-head,    it  will 
raise  the  bar  C  at  a  uniform 
motion  during  one  revolu- 
tion of  the  cylinder  or  cam. 
The  bar  would  then  drop 
back  suddenly  to  the  start- 
ing   point,    repeating    this 
motion  at  each  revolution. 
If  the   inclined  plane  had 
been  irregular,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  260,  the  motion  would  be  irregular.     In 
this  way  almost  any  motion  can  be  produced. 
In  the  cam  shown  in  Fig.  259,  the  motion 
is  in  a  plane  at   right  angles   to    the  shaft. 
When  the  motion  is  to  be  parallel  with  the 
shaft,  it  is  applied  to  the  face  of  the  disc,  as  in 
Fig.  260,  or  applied  in  the  form  of  a  groove, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  261.     This  is  the  form  of 
cam  used  in  the  sewing-machine. 


176 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


The  Pulley.  The  pulley  is  used  for  the  transmission  of  power  by 
means  of  a  belt  or  cable  (Fig.  262).  If  the  pulleys  are  of  the  same  size 
both  will  revolve  at  the  same  rate  of  speed.  If  one  is  twice  as  large  as  the 
other,  the  smaller  will  make  two  revolutions  in  the  same  time  that  the  larger 
makes  one.  The  speed  is  in  proportion  to  the  diameter  of  the  pulley.  Pul- 
leys are  usually  made  of  iron  or  wood.  They  are  sometimes  made  in  two 
parts,  and  are  then  called  split  pulleys.     The  parts  of  a  pulley,  with  the 

names,  are  shown  in  Fig.  263.  Fig.  264 
represents  a  five-arm  pulley,  showing  a  half 
elevation  and  a  half  section.  The  diameter 
of  the  hub  is  usually  twice  the  diameter  of 
the  bore.  The  faces  of  pulleys  are  made 
either  "crown"  or  straight  (Fig.  265). 

Gears.  Gears  are  wheels  having  teeth 
or  cogs  which  mesh  into  each  other.  They 
are  sometimes  called  cog-wheels  (Fig.  266). 
Like  pulleys,  gears  are  used  for  the  trans- 
mission of  power  and  to  increase  or  decrease 
speed. 

Duplicating  Drawings 

It  is  always  desirable  and  usually  necessary  to  have  several  copies  of  a 
drawing.  It  is  not  necessary  to  redraw  each  one,  but  a  tracing  may  be  made 
on  transparent  paper  or  cloth,  and  from  it  blue-prints  made  in  any  quantity 
required. 

Tracing.  To  make  a  tracing,  place  the  drawing  to  be  copied  upon 
the  board,  and  over  it  place  the  tracing  cloth  or  paper,  tacking  both  firmly 
to  the  board.  Many  grades  of  tracing  paper  and  cloth  are  in  the  market, 
but  for  durability,  cloth  should  be  used,  the  weight  of  it  depending  upon 
the  use  to  which  the  prints  are  put.  Drawings  to  be  traced  are  usually 
made  in  pencil  and  not  inked  on  the  original.  The  inking  is  done  directly 
upon  the  tracing  cloth.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  drawing  accurate 
and  complete  before  tracing  it.  Erasures  and  changes  upon  the  tracing 
always  mar  the  surface.  Either  side  of  the  cloth  may  be  used.  If  the  ink 
does  not  flow  well,  rub  powdered  chalk  over  the  surface  of  the  cloth. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  DRA  WING 


177 


In  tracing,  follow  the  usual  process  of  inking-in  the  drawing. 

Blue-Printing.  Blue-printing  is  a  photographic  process.  The  tracing 
is  placed  face  upward,  over  a  piece  of  sensitized  paper,  known  as  blue-print 
paper,  and  exposed  to  the  light  for  a  short  time,  according  to  the  sensitive- 
ness of  the  paper  and  the  strength  of  the  light.  From  one  to  five  minutes 
is  sufficient  in  strong  sunlight,  though  on  a  gray  day  a  much  longer  time  is 
required,    as    experiment   will   determine.      The  sensitized   paper  is   then 


removed  and  washed  for  several  minutes  in  running  water.  The  chemical 
coating  of  the  paper  is  affected  by  the  light,  and  after  washing  it  changes  in 
color  from  the  original  green  gray  to  a  strong  blue.  The  lines  covered  by 
the  black  lines  of  the  drawing  become  white,  as  the  coating  not  exposed  to 
the  light  readily  washes  off,  leaving  the  white  paper.  Fig.  267  shows  a 
blue-print  frame.  Fig.  268,  on  the  next  page,  is  a  reproduction  of  a  blue- 
print from  a  drawing.  The  blue  ground  of  the  print  is  represented  in  Fig. 
268  by  a  dark  gray  tone,  although  the  white  lines  in  the  print  are  also  white 
in  the  reproduction. 


178 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


CHAPTER   V 

ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING 

The  Need  of  Buildings.  Painting,  sculpture,  and  architecture  are 
usually  spoken  of  as  the  fine  arts,  and  of  these  three,  architecture  is  easily 
the  most  essential,  because  it  is  concerned  with  the  construction  of  the 
many  different  kinds  of  buildings  necessary  to  serve  the  needs  developed 
by  the  civilized  human  race.  In  the  city,  the  homes  of  the  people  are 
built  to  suit  their  various  conditions  of  life,  and  we  find  the  tenement 
building,  the  apartment  house,  the  detached  dwelling  and  the  city  mansion. 
There  are  also  buildings  for  public  utility,  such  as  the  school-houses,  the 
public  libraries,  the  churches,  the  railway  stations,  the  hotels  and  the 
theatres.  In  the  city,  also,  are  buildings  demanded  by  manufacturing  and 
business,  such  as  factories  and  warehouses,  office  buildings  and  banks. 
Buildings  must  be  constructed  to  meet  an  almost  endless  variety  of  needs, 
and  in  planning  a  structure  the  architect  must  know  for  what  purpose  it 
is  intended  and  where  it  is  to  be  located,  so  that  he  may  consider  the 
comfort  and  convenience  of  those  who  are  to  use  it,  as  well  as  its  external 
beauty  and  its  environment. 

Conditions  of  Construction.  As  almost  every  civilized  'human  being 
occupies  some  sort  of  a  house,  let  us  consider  a  few  of  the  questions  which 
the  architect  must  take  into  account  before  he  can  draw  suitable  plans  for 
a  dwelling.  He  must  know  the  number  of  rooms  required  by  the  owner, 
and  the  size  and  shape  of  the  lot  upon  which  the  house  is  to  be  built.  If 
the  home  is  to  be  in  the  city,  where  land  is  valuable,  the  building  will 
probably  be  planned  so  as  to  utilize,  if  not  to  cover,  the  entire  lot.  If  in  the 
country,  where  the  land  is  less  valuable,  the  location  of  the  house  may  be 
governed  by  the  local  topography  of  the  land,  and  the  questions  of 
drainage,  water  supply,  ease  of  access,  and  the  proper  setting  of  the 
house  become  important.     The  question  of  building  material  must  also  be 


]80 


ART  EDUCATIOX—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


met  by  the  architect ;  he  must  know  whether  the  dwelHng  is  to  be  con- 
structed of  wood,  brick,  stone,  or  cement ;  he  must  understand  the  relative 
quaUty  and  strength  of  these  materials,  and  his  knowledge  of  these  things 
must  enter  into  and  influence  his  plans. 

Another  problem  that  confronts  him  is  the  matter  of  light.  The 
majority  of  city  dwellings  must  be  constructed  with  the  narrowest  dimen- 
sion toward  the  street,  making  it  necessary  to  construct  wells  and  areas  in 
large  buildings  for  the  admission  of  light  and  air  to  inner  rooms.  In  the 
country,  the  dwelling  should  be  so  planned  as  to  admit  the  health-giving 
sunlio-ht  to  those  rooms    which  are  to  be    most  occupied  during   the   day 

the    living-room,   the   dining-room,  and    the  kitchen.      This    thoughtful 

division  of  space  into  the  required  number  of  rooms  becomes  the  basis  of 
the  first  drawing  or  plan  for  the  proposed  house.  As  the  architect  pro- 
ceeds with  his  work,  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  express  in  his  drawings  all 
the  information  needed  by  the  builders  in  constructing  the  house. 

Conventions.  He  does  this  by  means  of  conventions,  which,  as  with 
working  drawings  of  other  kinds,  have  been  accepted  as  a  sign  language 
conveying  briefly  and  accurately  the  information  necessary  for  the  builders. 
The  study  of  a  simple  problem  in  house-building  is  the  surest  way  of 
arriving  at  an  understanding  of  an  architectural  design  in  its  most  ele- 
mentary form,  and  of  gaining  a  knowledge  of  the  conventions  used  in  this 
kind  of  work. 


/7-0- 


Problem  I  —  A  Miniature  House 
Plan  and  Elevation.     Let  us  assume  that  we  wish  to  plan  a  house 
of  one  room,  to  be  built  of  wood,  with  stone  foundation,  shingled  roof,  and 

with  a  brick  chimney  in  the  center.     Let 

the  house  be  9'-6"  x  17-0",  in  outside 
measurements.  If  we  add  the  ell,  as  in 
Fig.  I,  the  house  will  be  more  attractive 
and  the  problem  more  interesting.  There 
I  should   be   at    least    three   views    in   our 

i ^,     I  working  drawings   of    the  house;    one  to 

show   the    size    and    shape    of    the    floor 
space,  called  a  plan,  and  two  views  of  the 


7-0 


ARCHITECTURE  181 

outside,  called  elevations.  All  drawings  of  plans  and  elevations  are  drawn 
to  a  scale.  In  this  case  we  will  take  a  scale  of  V  to  the  foot  (written 
J"=i'),  thus  making  our  drawings  in  each  view  4V  of  the  actual  size  of  the 
house. 

Make  a  free-hand  technical  sketch  of  these  views,  placing  the  plan 
above  the  front  elevation,  and  the  end  deviation  at  the  side  of  the  front. 
The  plan  is  most  important,  for  it  controls  all  the  other  views.  Although 
it  is  called  a  plan,  it  is  really  a  sectional  view,  as  by  common  consent  and 
long  usage  it  is  taken  to  mean  that  which  would  be  seen  if  the  house  were 
cut  by  a  horizontal  plane  at  the  level  of  the  eye,  and  the  upper  part 
removed.  Such  a  cut  would  reveal  the  length  and  breadth  of  all  parts  of 
the  house  when  viewed  from  above,  and  it  would  be  in  a  drawing  of  this 
sectional  view  or  plan  that  we  would  look  for  thickness  of  walls  and  parti- 
tions,   widths    of    windows    and      ,,,p,„,,,, 

doors,  chimney  dimensions,  etc.  atod.^j  space  j 'u  "^n?. 
The  outside  walls  of  frame  houses  k:^T\^^>(<i.r 

are  about  7"  thick,  made  up    of  fig.  2 

2"  X  4"  upright  props  or  studs,  with  lathing  and  plaster  on  the  inside, 
and  rough  boarding  and  clap-boarding  or  shingles  on  the  outside  (Fig.  2). 

Doors  and  Windows.  From  the  free-hand  sketch,  make  a  finished 
drawing  with  instruments  (see  Plate  I).  Draw  a  marginal  line,  as  with 
other  carefully  finished  working  drawings,  and  locate  and  draw  the  outline 
of  the  plan.  Inside  of  this,  draw  the  thickness  of  the  walls,  7"  (to  scale) 
from  the  first  set  of  lines.  Plan  for  five  windows  and  one  door,  locating 
them  in  the  center  of  the  spaces  as  indicated  in  the  plan.  ^^^^ 
As  this  is  a  miniature  house,  make  the  windows  i'-6"x  3-0",  ^^^  ^ 

and  the  door  2'-o"  x  4-0"  (to  scale).  To  distinguish  doors  from 
windows  special  signs  or  conventions  are  used ;  two  or  three  lines  across  a 
space  represent  a  window  (Fig.  3).  Doors  are  symbolized  by  an  oblique 
line,  swung  away  from  one  side  of  the  opening,  and  usually 
drawn  at  a  slant  of  30°  (Fig.  4).  If  the  floor  is  on  the  same 
^'*^'  *  level  each  side  of  the  door,  no  line  is  shown  across  the  gap,  but 
if  we  step  up  or  down  in  passing  through  the  door,  a  line  across  the 
opening  will  indicate  the  difference  in  level,  as  shown  in  the  plan.  The 
door  should  be  hung  to  that  side  of  the  wall  towards  which  it  is  intended  to 


182  ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 

swing.  In  dwelling  houses,  outside  doors  usually  swing  in,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  protected  from  the  weather,  but  in  public  buildings  the  law 
requires  that  outside  doors  should  swing  out,  as,  in  case  of  a  panic  or  stam- 
pede, a  door  swinging  out  would  form  a  better  exit  for  the  people.  In 
architectural  design,  it  will  be  seen  that  all  possible  conditions  ^^^^ 
must  be  considered.     Occasionally  we  desire  to  use  doors  ~^v, 

that  swing  both  ways.     This  is  indicated  in  the  drawing  as  ^^^'  ^ 

shown  in  Fig.  5.  If  sliding  doors  are  needed,  pockets  must  be  provided 
^^^^  for  them  to  slide  in,  necessitating  a  thickening  of  the  wall 

^■"^  ■     to  about  10".     A  pocket  for  a  sliding  door  is  indicated  in 

Fig.  6.     Doors  are  known  as  right-hand  or  left-hand,  ac- 
cording  as    they  are    fitted  up.     A  right-hand  door  swings  away  from  a 
person  entering,  and  towards  the  right  (Fig.  7),  while  the  move- 
ment of  a  left-hand  door  is  just  the  reverse  (Fig.  8).     A  right- 
hand  door  must  be  provided  with  a  right-hand   lock,  and  vice 
versa,  unless  a  modern  interchangeable  lock  is  used.     Decide 
whether  the  door  in   this   house  shall  be   a   right-hand,  a   left-hand,  or  a 
\  double-swing  door,  and  draw  the  proper  convention  in  the  plan. 

^g^   'IB      As  this  is  to  be  a  one-room  house,  there  will  be  no  interior  walls 
Fig-  8  except  those  of   the  chimney.      In   planning  the  size  of   the 

chimney,  we  must  remember  that  bricks  are  about  2"x4"x8",  and  our 
brick  walls  for  the  chimney  should  be  constructed  in  some  multiple  of  those 
figures,  so  that  cutting  the  brick  may  be  avoided.  Let  us  draw  the  flue 
of  this  chimney  12"  square,  with  4"  brick  walls. 

Front  and  End  Elevation.  We  are  now  ready  to  draw  the  front, 
and  the  end  elevation  of  our  structure.  In  practical  draughting,  it  is  well 
to  carry  all  views  along  together,  referring  back  and  forth  from  one  view  to 
another,  rather  than  to  finish  any  one  part.  In  this  way  the  relation  of 
all  parts  to  one  another  and  to  the  whole  is  kept  in  mind. 

Project  the  extreme  length  of  the  plan  downward,  and  draw  the 
ground  line,  AB,  Plate  I.  As  there  is  to  be  no  cellar,  all  our  measure- 
ments will  be  upward  from  the  ground  line.  Before  proceeding  further 
with  the  front  elevation,  set  off  the  width  of  the  house  E  F  in  the  space 
at  the  right  of  the  front  elevation.  The  floor  level  is  to  be  set  up  12''  to 
14"  from  the  ground  line,  as  the  timbers  must  rest  on  a  stone  foundation 


ARCHITECTURE 


183 


184  ART  ED UCA  TION—  HIGH  SCHO OL 

to  protect  them  from  dampness.  Measure  6'-o"  (to  scale)  from  floor  level  to 
the  beginning  of  the  slant  of  the  roof.  The  slant,  or  pitch,  is  sometimes 
determined  by  choice,  although  the  matter  of  climate  has  a  great  deal  to 
do  with  it.  In  Egypt,  for  instance,  where  there  is  no  rainfall,  the  roofs  are 
flat,  while  in  Sweden  and  Norway  the  pitch  of  the  roof  is  steep,  so  that 
the  heavy  snows  may  be  easily  shed  instead  of  forming  an  insupportable 
weight.  In  our  own  latitude  the  slant  for  a  shingled  roof  should  not  be 
less  than  30°  from  the  horizontal.  For  our  present  problem  a  slant  of 
45°,  called  a  square  pitch,  as  shown  in  the  end  elevation,  will  be  found 
satisfactory.  Draw  two  slopes  of  the  roof,  meeting  at  the  ridge.  The 
triangular  space  enclosed  between  the  two  sides  of  the  roof  is  known 
as  the  gable.  Make  the  thickness  of  the  roof  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the 
walls  in  the  plan.  The  lower  edges  of  the  roof  are  called  the  eaves  anxl 
they  should  project  over  the  sides  of  the  house,  forming  what  is  known  as 
the  overhang,  and  containing  the  gutter,  or  rain  trough,  when  one  is  needed. 
In  the  absence  of  the  gutter,  the  overhang  serves  to  carry  water  from  the 
roof,  so  that  it  will  fall  beyond  the  walls  of  the  house,  thus  preserving 
them  from  decay  and  discoloration  and  making  less  liable  the  possibility  of 
leakage.  Besides  serving  all  these  uses,  the  overhang  has  artistic  value, 
for  its  shadow  draws  a  strong,  definite  line  on  the  building,  accenting  an 
important  structural  feature. 

Determine   the   projection  of   the  overhang  by  drawing  a 

I    / y      plumb-line  12"  outside  the  building  line  (measuring  horizontally), 

and  continuing   the  slant  of   the  roof    until    it    meets  this  line 

(Fig.  9). 

We  now  have  the  ridge  and  eaves  levels  established.  Pro- 
ject them  across  to  the  front  elevation,  allowing  12"  for  the 
Fig.  9  overhang  beyond  each  end  of  the  house.  Erect  the  ell  in  the 
front  elevation,  giving  its  roof  the  same  slant  and  overhang  as  the  main 
roof.  Project  the  ridge  of  the  ell  roof  back  to  the  end  view,  until  it  inter- 
sects the  slant  of  the  main  roof.  Find  the  projection  of  the  ell  in  the  end 
view  and  give  its  roof  the  proper  overhang  at  the  left.  The  top  of  the 
foundation  may  be  considered  as  coinciding  with  the  floor  level,  but  it  may 
project  very  slightly,  thus  giving  the  effect  of  a  base  for  the  house  to  rest 
upon,  as  shown  in  the  front  and  in  the  end  elevation. 


I 
I 

I 


ARCHITECTURE  185 

Get  the  width  of  the  chimney  from  the  plan,  and  locate  it  in  the  end 
view.  Let  the  chimney  run  up  I'-o"  above  the  ridge,  and  draw  the  vertical 
lines  down  until  they  meet  the  slant  lines  of  the  roof.  Project  the  points 
obtained  across  to  the  front  view,  and  bring  down  the  width  from  the  plan. 
Project  the  windows  and  the  floor  from  the  plan,  using  the  heights  already 
specified.     Add  a  small  window  in  the  gable  end. 

The  door-step  is  a  feature  that  needs  to  be  shown  in  the  plan  and  in 
the  front  and  end  elevations.  The  height  of  a  step 
is  called  its  rise  and  the  width  is  known  as  the 
tread.  The  rise  of  a  step  is  usually  7^'  high,  and 
the  tread  is  usually  10"  wide  (Fig.  10).  Where 
an  easier  ascent  or  an  imposing  effect  is  desired 
the  rise  is  reduced  and  the  tread  is  correspondingly 
increased.     In  our  problem,  the  floor  is  so  close  to  ^'^-  ^° 

the  ground  level  that  but  one  step  will  be  necessary.  This  is  to  be  of 
stone,  with  riser  and  tread  of  the  usual  measurements.  In  length,  the 
step  is  to  be  a  little  more  than  the  width  of  the  door. 

Roof  Plan.  A  plan  of  the  roof,  which  in  this  problem  would  not  be 
essential  to  the  builder,  is  an  interesting  feature,  and  will  make  our  set  of 
views  more  complete.  Project  the  lines  from  the  floor  plan  to  the  right, 
representing  in  dash  lines  the  outline  of  the  floor  plan,  but  invisible  when 
viewed  from  above.  Measure  the  overhang  outside  of  those  lines  and  draw 
the  lines  representing  the  eaves  of  the  roof,  all  around  the  dash  lines.  By 
reference  to  the  end  elevation,  locate  and  draw  the  main  ridge  in  the  roof 
plan.  The  ell  also  has  a  ridge,  which  should  be  drawn.  Get  its  length 
from  the  end  view  and  dra^  the  line  backward  from  the  middle  of  the  front 
overhang  of  the  ell.  From  the  back  end  of  this  ridge  must  be  drawn  lines 
representing  the  valleys,  or  lines  of  intersection  of  the  two  roofs.  Draw 
these  lines  one  to  the  right  and  one  to  the  left,  down  and  forward  to  the 
juncture  of  the  eaves  of  the  house  with  those  of  the  ell.  Locate  and  draw 
the  rectangles  for  the  top  view  of  the  chimney,  and  the  roof  plan  is 
complete. 

Inking  In.  Up  to  this  point,  the  views  and  their  parts  have  been 
expressed  in  light  pencil  lines.  Ink  in  the  whole  problem  after  the  views 
are  completed    in  pencil  and    all  corrections  made.     As  the  floor  plan   is 


186  ART  ED UCA  TION—  HIGH  SCHO OL 

really  a  sectional  view,  all  the  parts  cut  by  the  horizontal  plane  should  be 
section  lined,  or  colored  with  a  wash,  to  indicate  the  surfaces  actually  cut. 
In  this  process,  windows  and  doors  are  omitted,  as  shown  in  the  plan,  as 
they  arQ  open  spaces.  Indicate  the  path  of  the  cutting  plane  by  a  special 
line  drawn  in  the  front  elevation  (see  C  —  D  in  Plate  I). 

The  name  of  each  view  should  be  printed  below  it,  and  the  principal 
dimensions  expressed  in  plain  figures.  Be  careful  to  separate  feet  from 
inches,  using  the  signs  or  conventions  accurately,  and  locating  arrow-heads 
at  the  exact  points  which  mark  the  extremes  of  measurements.  The  scale 
in  which  the  drawing  is  made  should  also  be  plainly  indicated. 

A  Free-hand  Perspective  Sketch.  As  a  finishing  touch  to  your 
problem,  draw  a  small  free-hand  perspective  sketch,  as  shown  in  Plate  I, 
to  translate  what  you  have  expressed  in  the  technical  language  of  the 
views.  Every  one  understands  a  good  pictorial  representation  of  a  house,  — 
it  is  like  a  photograph.  In  drawing  the  perspective  sketch,  assume  a  point 
of  view  that  will  show  the  house  in  a  comprehensive  and  advantageous 
position.  Locate  the  horizon  line,  and  carefully  consider  proportion,  con- 
vergence and  foreshortening,  as  in  any  other  perspective  study.  Assume, 
also,  that  the  light  falls  so  that  one  side  of  the  house  is  in  shadow,  and 
indicate  simply  the  effect  of  shade  and  shadow.  Add  blinds  or  other 
accessories  to  finish  the  sketch  and  suggest  an  attractive  environment. 
Many  architects  do  a  large  part  of  their  designing  in  perspective. 

Problem  II  —  A  One-story  Cottage 

The  one-room  house  that  formed  the  basis  of  our  first  problem, 
while  it  illustrates  the  elementary  features  of  house  construction,  would 
hardly  be  adequate  for  the  needs  of  even  a  very  simple  home.  Such  a 
house  might  answer  for  a  summer  camp  or  a  hunter's  lodge,  or  it  might 
serve  as  a  shop  or  a  studio  of  some  kind,  but  for  the  requirements  of  a 
family  it  would  be  found  lacking  in  many  essentials.  In  the  early  days  of 
civilization  the  one-room  house  served  as  a  shelter,  it  is  true,  and  the  people 
it  housed  were  warm,  and,  in  a  sense,  comfortable,  although  the  single  room 
was  made  to  serve  the  purposes  of  kitchen,  dining-room,  sleeping-room,  and 
reception-room  or  parlor,  all  in  one.     But  as  the  social  life  developed  the 


ARCHITECTURE 


187 


Floor    Plan. 


Scale  4:"=  I' 


need  for  more  apartments  became  insistent,  and  the  gradual  addition  of  a 
room  for  sleeping,  another  for  cooking,  another  for  the  reception  of  guests 
or  strangers,  led  to  the  development  of  the  modern  dwelling  house. 


188 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Essential  Features.  In  our  second  problem  we  are  to  consider  the 
essential  features  of  a  simple  house,  one  in  which  a  working  man  could  live 
in  comfort  and  cleanliness.  The  requirements  for  such  a  home  would  seem 
to  be,  first,  a  kitchen,  to  serve  as  the  general  laboratory  or  workshop  of  the 
house ;  second,  there  must  be  provided  a  separate  sleeping-room  ;  third,  a 
room  for  eating,  reading,  and  entertaining  guests,  called  a  living-room  or 


Front  Elevation 

Fig.  12 


Scale  df"=  I' 


parlor;  fourth,  a  bathroom.  A  corridor  or  hall  to  lead  from  the  front 
entrance  to  each  of  these  rooms  should  also  be  provided.  The  kitchen, 
bed-room  and  living-room  should  each  have  a  suitable  closet.  The  arrange- 
ment of  these  units  into  a  harmonious  whole  is  our  problem  —  a  problem  in 
architectural  design.  We  must  think  of  convenience,  economy,  fitness  to 
purpose,  hygienic  location,  and  the  beauty  of  the  design  when  complete. 


ARCHITECTURE 


189 


In  working  out  the  problem,  we  will  draw  the  floor  plan,  front  elevation 
and  the  elevation  of  an  adjacent  side.  The  plan  and  elevations  shown  in 
Figures  11,12  and  13  show  one  way  only  of  working  out  such  a  problem. 
There  are  many  other  solutions,  and  each  student  should  draw  a  set  of 
views  that  will  illustrate  his  own  ideas  in  planning  a  simple  house  within  the 
restrictions  stated.  The  specifications  and  suggestions  that  follow  should 
be  well  in  mind  before  the  drawings  are  begun.     As  all  the  rooms  are  to 


N.W.  EUEVAT  ION. 
Fig.  13 


be  on  one  floor,  and  as  there  is  to  be  no  provision  for  a  cellar  or  an  attic, 
we  shall  avoid  for  the  present  the  problem  of  stairs.  Our  house  is  to  be 
heated  by  stoves,  lighted  by  gas  and  supplied  with  modern  plumbing.  The 
most  compact  shape  into  which  the  various  rooms  can  be  assembled  is  a 
square  or  an  oblong,  and  therefore  the  floor  plan  of  the  house  should  be  a 
rectangle  of  some  kind,  its  proportions  to  be  determined  by  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  rooms.     As  a  general  rule,  it  is  well  to  have  all  the  rooms 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


open  directly  from  the  hall,  that  we  may 
avoid  the  necessity  of  passing  through 
one  room  in  order  to  get  to  another. 
Have  no  connection  between  kitchen 
and  bedroom,  nor  between  bedroom  and 
bath-room.  The  kitchen  and  living- 
room,  however,  should  be  connected  and 
on  the  same  side  of  the  hall,  so  that  one 
chirnney  will  answer  for  both  rooms. 

Beauty  of  Exterior.  With  these 
conditions  in  mind,  begin  the  work  by 
jotting  down  several  small  preliminary 
sketches  of  floor  plans,  showing  different 
possibilities  in  the  arrangement  of  rooms. 
These  are  mere  notes  or  first  thoughts, 
and  are  to  be  drawn  quickly  and  in  free- 
hand (see  Figures  14,  15  and  16).  Put 
down  in  this  way  as  many  different  ideas 
as  come  to  you.  Study  these  sketches  to 
find  what  improvements  or  combinations 
can  be  made.  Consider  also  what  the 
outside  appearance  of  the  house  would  be 
if  one  of  these  sketches  were  worked  out. 
While  our  house  need  not  be  perfectly 
regular  in  its  outline,  we  must  avoid  too 
many  projections  and  angles,  as  they 
seldom  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  design, 
they  cut  up  the  roof  badly  and  they  are 
expensive  to  build.  Simplicity  is  always 
a  safe  principle  to  follovv.  With  this 
thought  in  mind,  decide  oi>  the  arrange- 
ment of  your  rooms. 

Types  of  Roof.  The  selection  of  a 
roof  for  the  house  is  next  in  importance. 
There  are  several  well-defined  types  of 


A R CHITE  C TURE 


19J. 


roofs  in  common  use,  of  which  the  simplest 
is  the  lean-to,  or  shed  roof,  which  slants 
one  way  only  (Fig.  i;).  The  pitch  roof  is 
the  style  used  in  Problem  I,  in  which  the 
ridge  is  at  or  near  the  middle,  with  the 
roof  slanting  two  ways  (Fig.  i8).  A  roof 
that  slants  four  ways,  like  the  sides  of  a 
pyramid,  is  called  a  hip  roof  (Fig.  19),  while 
one  that  has  double  slants  in  two  ways  from 
the  ridge  is  called  a  gambrel  roof  (Fig.  20). 
It  is  like  a  compound  pitch  roof.  The 
mansard  roof  slants  twice  in  four  direc- 
tions, like  a  compound  hip  roof  (Fig.  21). 
Various  combinations  of  these  types  occur 
in  the  construction  of  buildings.  In 
churches,  towers  and  other  buildings  of  a 
special  nature  we  often  find  the  conical 
roof  and  the  dome.  Make  several  sketches 
showing  different  styles  of  roof,  adapted  to 
the  plan  selected  for  your  house,  as  in  Fig- 
ures 22,  23  and  24.  Select  the  style  you 
desire  to  use  in  this  problem. 

Divisions  of  Space.  The  sizes  of 
the  rooms  will  be  governed  largely  by 
their  specific  uses.  Let  us  take  the  follow- 
ing figures  as  approximate,  and  modify 
them  to  suit  the  shapes  and  arrangement 
of  the  rooms  already  decided  upon : 
Kitchen,  130  square  feet,  with  pantry 
closet  40  square  feet;  living-room,  150 
square  feet,  with  china  closet ;  bedroom, 
1 10  square  feet,  with  clothes  closet;  bath- 
room, 40  square  feet ;  hall  not  less  than 
4  feet  wide  "in  the  clear,"  so  that  people 
may  pass  each  other  easily. 


192 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Before  locating  the  plan  of  our 
house  definitely,  the  points  of  the  com- 
pass should  be  considered.  If  possi- 
ble, plan  to  have  the  morning  sun  in 
the  kitchen,  and  the  living-room  •  ar- 
ranged with  windows  towards  the  west. 
We  are  now  ready  to  decide  on 
the  scale  to  which  our  plans  and  ele- 
vations are  to  be  drawn.  Each  view 
will  probably  need  to  be  drawn  on  a 
separate  piece  of  paper,  but  the  rela- 
tion between  them  will  be  just  as 
vital  as  though  they  were  all  on  one 
sheet,  as  in  Problem  I.  Begin  as 
before,  with  the  plan.  We  have 
previously  settled  on  the  approximate 
size  of  each  room,  so  that,  working 
from  our  free-hand  sketch  of  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  rooms,  we  can  esti- 
mate the  size  of  the  floor  plan.  This' 
' }  ^■l_A=JS!M_^^^^"  estimate,  although  subject  to  change 

-•^r^'"^       I  '^S^g^^^^^^-  as  we  work  out  the  room   measure- 

ments carefully,  will  enable  us  to 
place  our  plan  effectively  upon  the 
paper.  After  drawing  the  outline  of  the  plan  to  scale,  draw  the  outside 
walls  7"  thick,  as  in  Problem  I.  Then  divide  the  space  by  partitions  6" 
thick,  composed  of  2"x4"  studs,  plastered  on  both  sides.  First,  measure  a 
room,  then  a  wall,  then  a  room  again.  Make -the  necessary  changes,'  if  any,  ^ 
in  adapting  your  estimates  to  the  accurately  drawn  plan.  After  the  parti- 
tions are  placed,  cut  openings  through  them  and  through  the  outside  walls, 

for  doors  and 
windows.  Make 
outside  doors 
3'-o"  wide,  and 
inside    doors 


D 


Fig.  25 


ARCHITECTURE  193 

2 '-6"  wide.  The  placing  of  the  windows  is  a  matter  of  importance  both 
from  the  inside  and  outside  points  of  view.  As  a  rule,  they  should  be  2-5" 
wide.  Next  locate  the  chimney,  planning  its  position  so  that  both  kitchen 
and  living-room  can  connect  with  it.  (No  heat  nesd  be  provided  for  the 
bedroom.)  Of  the  three  ways  of  locating  a  chimney,  shown  in  Figures 
25,  26.  and  27,  Fig.  26  shows  the  fewest  corners  in  the  room.  This  is 
important  when  the  questions  of  placing  base-boards,  cutting  carpets  and 
cleaning  corners  are  considered.  Place  the  chimney  where  you  think  the 
space  can  be  most  easily  spared  and  will  interfere  the  least  with  the  straight 
lines  of  the  walls.  Give  it  an  8"  x  8"  flue,  with  4"  brick  walls.  The  chim- 
ney should  be  covered  or  shielded  by  walls  built  around  it  but  not  touching 
it,  the  protecting  wall  being  kept  i "  from  the  chimney,  thus  allowing  a  free 
circulation  .of  air.  This  is  a  safeguard  against  fire,  and  will  prevent  cracks 
in  the  plastering.  No  timbers  should  be  built  into  the  chimney.  This 
construction  of  the  chimney  is  shown  in  the  plan  by  drawing  the  walls 
around  the  chimney  i"  thinner  than  the  other  plastered  walls,  as  here, 
plastering  is  placed  only  on  one  side. 

The  Kitchen.  We  are  now  ready  to  particularize  in  our  plans  for 
the  individual  rooms.  As  the  kitchen  is  the  work-room  of  the  house,  it 
should  be  fitted  with  appliances  that  will  enable  the  housekeeper  to  do 
her  work  conveniently.  The  placing  of  sink,  range,  tubs,  plumbing,  etc. 
must  all  be  done  with  the  idea  of  convenience  in  mind.  The  kitchen 
plumbing  should  be  placed  near  the  light,  and  yet  it  should  be  located' 
along  an  inside  wall,  so  that  the  danger  of  frozen  pipes  will  be  lessened. 
The  sink  should  be  placed  so  that  it  will  not  be  exposed  to  view  when  the 
front  door  opens  to  receive  a  visitor.  A  long  telescopic  view  through 
the  house  should  be  avoided,  either  by  the  plan  of  the  hall  or  by  the 
method  of  hanging  doors. 

Opening  from  the  kitchen  should  be  a  good-sized  €loset  or  pantry, 
fitted  with  shelves,  drawers  and  lockers,  or  cupboards,  in  which  dishes  and 
cooking  utensils,  provisions  and  food  of  various  kinds  may  be  kept.  A 
place  should  also  be  planned  for  a  refrigerator,  as  ice  is  a  necessity  in  every 
family.  The  refrigerator  should  be  placed  near  the  back  entrance,  so  that 
it  may  be  conveniently  filled  (see  Fig.  11).  A  small  entry  is  added,  and 
the    ice-box  placed    in    that.     The  location    of    the  laundry    tubs    will    be 


194  ART  ED UCA  TION—  BIG H  SCHO OL 

determined  by  the  plumbing.  In  Fig.  ii,  notice  the  grouping  of  range, 
hot-water  tank,  sink,  drain-board  and  tubs.  The  average  size  of  a  kitchen 
sink  is  20"  x  36";  of  a  range,  2-6"  x  3-0'';  of  stationary  tubs,  2-0''  square 
over  all,  with  i "  walls.  Place  gas  outlets  where  they  will  shed  light  to  the 
greatest  advantage,  at  the  same  time  considering  convenience  of  location 
and  direction  of  cast  shadows. 

The  Living  Room.  In  planning  furniture  spaces  for  the  living- 
room,  remember  that  in  oiu"  problem  the  dining-table  must  be  accommo- 
dated here.  An  average  size  of  4-0"  square  when  closed  may  be  taken 
for  the  table,  allowing  for  an  extension  of  4-0"  in  addition.  Sufficient 
space  should  be  allowed  for  chairs  about  the  table.  Probably  the  center 
of  the  room  will  be  the  best  space  for  the  table,  and  the  gas  may  come 
from  fixtures  suspended  from  the  ceiling  above  (see  Fig.  1 1).  Between 
kitchen  and  living-room  there  may  be  a  double-swing  door,  while  between 
living-room  and  hall  the  door  should  be  hung  so  as  to  disclose  to  the 
entering  guest  the  attractive  room  within.  In  a  private  room,  such  as  a 
bedroom,  the  door  should  be  hung  so  that,  when  partly  open,  it  may  serve' 
as  a  screen  to  the  greater  part  of  the  room.  If  you  desire  to  place  a  piano 
in  the  living-room,  plan  for  a  space  against  an  inside  wall,  measuring 
5-0"  X  2-0",  where  light  may  be  obtained.  Locate  other  pieces  of  furni- 
ture as  the  space  and  shape  of  your  living-room  will  permit.  Express 
the  proportions  and  general  shapes  of  the  furniture  by  dotted  lines,  and 
draw  all  such  blocked-in  shapes  to  scale.^  To  do  this,  you  must  know  the 
average  sizes  of  the  pieces  of  furniture  you  wish  to  place.  The  closet  to 
the  living-room  may  be  a  shallow  one,  fitted  with  shelves,  to  serve  as  a  china 
closet.     The  door  should  open  so  as  to  swing  back  against  a  dead  wall. 

The  Bedroom.  Plan  the  fixtures  and  furniture  of  the  bedroom  in 
the  same  way.  A  full-sized  bed  is,  on  the  average,  4-6"  x  6-6",  and 
requires  about  8'-o"  of  space  in  which  it  may  be  turned.  Be  careful  that 
draughts  between  windows  do  not  fall  across  the  head  of  the  bed.  Locate 
the  gas  jet  conveniently  in  relation  to  the  bureau  or  dresser.  The  closet 
to  the  bedroom  should  be  fitted  with  a  shelf,  and  the  door  should  swing  in 
such  a  way  as  to  admit  the  most  light  when  open. 

The  Bathroom.  Average  sizes  for  bathroom  fixtures  are :  bathtub, 
2'-o''x5'-o"  inside  measurements,  with  3"  rim;  bowl,   12"  diameter,  with 


ARCHITECTURE 


195 


3"  of  marble  slab  outside  of  it;  seat,  18"  x  18",  with  6"  behind  it.  Plan 
the  location  of  these  fixtures  carefully,  as  well  as  the  placing  of  the  gas-jet 
and  the  swing  of  the  door. 

Outside  doorways  show  a  slight  projecting  sill  (Fig.    11),  and  3'-o"  will 
be  found  a  good  height  from  the  ground  level  to  the  house  floor. 


Profile  of  height's. 


Window 


Piaz.2a  7o5t  %<i 


Ceilings.  In  drawing  the  front  and  adjacent  side  elevations  you 
will  need  to  know  the  height  of  the  ceiling.  In  our  problem  a  9'-o" 
ceiling  will  answer.  Allow  i  -o"  for  ceiling  beams,  and  place  the  roof  as 
in  the  first  problem.  The  eaves  may  be  any  height  above  the  ceiling  that 
is  desired.  Usually  the  eaves,  or  cornice  'as  it  is  called,  is  composed  of 
a   series    of   mouldings,    with    the   gutter   forming   a   part    of    the    series 


196  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

(Plate  II,  page  195).  A  board  at  the  corners  provides  a  good  stopping- 
place  for  the  clapboards.  Part  of  the  cornice  returns  around  the  corner 
and  across  the  top  of  the  corner  bpard,  giving  a  suggestion  of  support,  like 
a  primitive  capital.  Weather-boards  show  below  all  cornices,  whether  they 
run  "on  the  rake"  or  level.  (The  rake  of  a  roof  is  its  pitch  or  slope.) 
At  the  ridge  of  the  roof,  show  saddle-boards,  which  emphasize  this  impor- 
tant line. 

To  cover  the  joint  between  the  foundation  wall  and  the  wood-work,  a 
simple  group  of  mouldings,  called  a  water-table,  is  used  (Plate  II).  This 
keeps  the  weather  from  driving  in  under  the  sills,  and  also  serves  as  a  strong 
structural  line  to  mark  the  base  of  the  building. 

"Windows  and  Doors.  In  locating  and  drawing  the  windows,  draw 
first  the  lower  line  of  the  window  glass,  placing  it  2'-o"  above  the  floor 
level.  Draw  the  glass  size  first,  and  work  outward  in  all  directions  for  the 
finish.  The  windows  are  to  be  twice  as  high  as  they  are  wide.  Make  out- 
side doors  7'-o"  high.  Each  opening  is  usually  surrounded  by  a  more  or 
less  ornamental  margin  called  the  trim,  or  casing.  This  serves  the  double 
purpose  of  providing  a  tight  joint  against  the  weather  and  of  emphasizing 
the  opening  as  a  decorative  feature  in  the  design.  The  casing  for  doors 
and  windows  should  be  of  the  same  design,  and  the  panelling  of  the  doors 
should  correspond  in  style.  Tops  of  piazza  posts  are  supplied  with  a 
moulding,  called  a  capital,  which  serves  as  an  ornamental  feature  also. 

Chimneys.  Chimneys  are  generally  given  a  simple  ornamental  line 
near  the  top.  This  must  not  project  far,  as  ice  will  lodge  on  the  shelf  and 
force  the  joints.  In  order  to  secure  a  good  draught,  and  also  to  prevent 
sparks  from  striking  the  roof,  the  top  of  the  chimney  should  be  well  above 
the  ridge.  A  chimney  should  never  be  built  in  a  valley  of  a  roof,  as  the 
snow  and  ice  would  in  that  case  fill  in  behind  it,  eventually  causing  leakage 
through  the  roof  to  the  ceiling  underneath. 

The  Piazza.  If  your  plan  calls  for  a  piazza,  you  will  need  to  know 
that  piazza  posts  are  usually  6"  square  or  round ;  that  balusters  are  2"  wide, 
set  6"  apart  on  centers  ;  — the  classical  rule  is  that  the  space  between  must 
equal  the  size  of  the  baluster.  The  hand-rail  is  3"  wide.  For  sizes  of  other 
parts,  see  Plate  II.  The  width  of  the  piazza  floor  should  not  be  less 
than  4'-o". 


ARCHITECTURE  197 

Piazza  balustrades  should  be  made  with  two  rails  :  the  hand-rail  already 
spoken  of,  and  a  lower  one,  built  up  from  the  piazza  floor,  so  that  a  broom 
or  brush  may  pass  under  it.  Around  the  piazza  there  are  usually  some 
openwork  panels  or  a  lattice  work  of  some  kind  (Fig.  12).  Some  such  con- 
struction allows  a  free  circulation  of  air  under  the  piazza  floor  and  also  forms 
a  decorative  finish.  For  decorative  purposes,  also,  the  treads  of  steps  are 
made  to  project  slightly  over  the  risers,  forming  a  "nosing." 

Specifications.  Although  innumerable  joints  are  necessary  in  the 
construction  of  a  house,  we  should  not  attempt  to  show  them  all  in  the 
plans  and  elevations.  Accompanying  the  drawings  of  the  plans  and  eleva- 
tions for  a  building  is  usually  a  set  of  specifications  written  out  by  the 
architect,  stating  the  materials  to  be  used  in  all  parts  of  the  house,  how 
walls  are  to  be  covered,  and  giving  all  other  facts  that  cannot  be 
expressed  in  the  drawings. 

When  all  pencil  lines  are  drawn  in  the  plan  and  in  the  two  elevations 
of  the  problem,  go  over  each  view  carefully  to  see  that  they  relate 
properly  and  that  all  measurements  are  drawn  accurately  to  scale.  When 
corrections  are  made,  we  are  ready  to  color  and  ink  in  our  work.  The 
thickness  of  walls  in  the  plan  may  be  section  lined,  or  expressed  by  a  thin 
wash  of  yellow  ochre  water-color,  with  red  for  the  brick  work.  When  the 
color  washes  are  dry,  ink  in  all  pencil  lines  as  in  Problem  I. 

Indicate  the  grade  line  and  all  stone  work  by  free-hand  lines,  rather 
than  by  mechanical  means. 

Lettering  and  Planning  Dimensions.  Add  the  necessary  lettering 
and  the  date.  The  lettering  should  be  uniform  in  all  views,  as  all  are 
parts  of  one  design. 

In  the  plan,  place  the  name  of  each  room  as  near  the  center  as  pos- 
sible (Fig.  II).  All  walls  should  be  definitely  located  by  figures.  The 
dimensions  thus  stated  are  not  those  we  used  in  drawing  the  rooms,  for 
builders  generally  work  from  centers.  But  if  our  calculations  have  been  cor- 
rectly made,  the  finished  size  "in  the  clear"  will  result  exactly  as  planned. 

Run  dimension  lines  through  the  entire  house  so  as  to  cross  as  many 
partitions  as  possible  without  conflicting  with  any  line  of  the  drawing. 

Allowing  7"  for  outside  walls  and  6"  for  inside  walls,  figure  from 
outside  of   house  to  center  of    first   partition ;    then  measure  from   center 


198  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

to  center  until  you  come  to  the  opposite  outside  wall,  continuing  the 
measurement  through  to  the  outside  of  the  wall.  The  sum  of  these  figures 
will  show  the  size  of  the  house.  The  dimensions  should  be  placed  far 
enough  away  from  the  lines  of  the  plan  to  avoid  confusion  and  to  be  plainly 
read. 

It  is  important  that  the  windows  and  doors  be  located  exactly  in 
accordance  with  the  original  design.  Just  outside  of  each  side  of  the 
drawing  show  a  series  of  measurements  which  will  locate  all  outside  open- 
ings (doors  and  windows).  Starting  from  an  outside  corner  of  the  house, 
figure  to  the  center  of  the  nearest  opening  ;  then  to  the  center  of  the  next 
opening,  and  so  on  until  the  entire  side  of  the  house  is  measured.  The 
sum  of  these  measurements  must  tally  with  the  total  of  the  inside  measure- 
ments. If  we  give  the  builders  the  centers  and  the  size  of  the  glass,  the 
size  of  the  windows  will  in  this  way  be  determined.  Inside  doors  are  not, 
as  a  rule,  figured. 

For  the  sake  of  simplifying  this  problem,  fractions  of  inches  have 
been  omitted  in  the  sketches  shown  ;  but  in  practical  or  advanced  work, 
of  course,  fractions  of  inches  are  necessary  factors. 

Problem  III  —  A  Two-story  Dwelling 

We  are  now  ready  to  undertake  the  planning  of  a  more  complete 
house,  —  one  that  will  more  nearly  meet  the  needs  of  the  average  family. 
Our  plans  in  Problem  III  will  include  a  cellar,  first  and  second  floors,  stair- 
ways and  a  heating  apparatus.  In  carrying  out  such  a  problem,  many  of 
the  steps  taken  will  be  the  same  as  in  Problem  II,  the  added  difficulty 
being  the  location  and  drawing  of  the  stairways. 

In  our  first  floor  plan  we  can  now  introduce  a  parlor  as  a  separate 
room,  leaving  the  dining-room  to  be  devoted  to  its  specific  uses.  The  bath- 
room may  now  be  located  on  the  second  floor,  with  as  many  bedrooms  as 
the  size  of  our  house  will  permit.  The  heating  plant  we  will  assume  to  be 
a  hot-air  furnace. 

Make  preliminary  free-hand  sketches  of  floor  plans,  as  in  Problem  II, 
but  carry  along  the  plans  of  the  two  floors  together,  being  careful  to 
see  that  their   outlines  closely  agree.     When  you  have    settled    upon  the 


ARCHITECTURE 


199 


V<2rfical   Section 

Scale  :?'=r 


arrangement  of  rooms  on  each  floor,  and  have  estimated  their  sizes  and  pro- 
portions, you  are  ready  to  draw  the  carefully  measured  plans. 

A  Vertical  Section.     Before   you    proceed    very  far  with    the    "lay 
out"  you  will  need  to  consider  the  heights  of  various  parts  of  the  house, 


200  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

as  in  planning  stairways  as  well  as  in  two-story  elevations  the  up-and-down 
measurements  are  of  much  importance.  These  measurements  are  best 
determined  by  making  an  extra  drawing,  called  a  vertical  section,  showing 
the  heights  of  floors,  ceilings,  windows,  cornices,  etc.  (Fig.  28). 

For  the  rooms  in  the  first  story,  let  us  assume  a  height  of  9-0",  with 
8'-o"  ceilings  for  the  second  story.  The  thickness  of  the  floors  may  b^ 
estimated  as  12".  This  includes  beams,  floor-boards  and  ceilings,  and  the 
thickness  varies  according  to  circumstances. 

In  drawing  this  vertical  section  of  the  house,  begin  with  the  ground 
level  or  "grade."  Place  the  first  floor  level  about  3'-o"  above  the  grade  line, 
thus  allowing  space  for  cellar  windows.  From  the  first  floor  level,  measure 
up  for  the  heights  of  the  first  and  second  stories  and  down  for  the  depth 
of  the  cellar,  allowing  for  the  thickness  of  floors.  Draw  the  floor  lines 
across  from  wall  to  wall. 

The  Stairway.  To  find  the  number  of  risers  required  in  a  flight  of 
stairs,  divide  the  height  from  floor  level  to  floor  level  by  7,  as  7"  is  the 
accepted  average  height  of  a  riser.  In  our  problem  the  height  of  the  first 
story  is  g'-o"  and  the  thickness  of  the  floor  is  i -o".  Reduced  to  inches, 
this  distance  is  120".  Dividing  by  7,  we  have  a  result  of  17,  with  i"  over. 
Therefore,  we  shall  require  17  risers,  each  measuring  7t\"  in  height,  for 
the  stairway  leading  from  the  first  to  the  second  floors. 

The  problem  of  planning  and  locating  a  stairway  is  often  a  perplexing 
one,  and  in  working  out  this  exercise  you  may  find  it  necessary  to  try  a 
number  of  ways  before  you  settle  upon  one  which  is  satisfactory.  A  straight 
"  run  "  of  stairs  is  the  simplest,  of  course,  but  it  often  develops  awkward 
proportions,  and  interferes  with  other  parts  of  the  plan.  In  the  effort  to 
economize  room,  however,  the  opposite  extreme  should  be  avoided,  in  the 
stairway  involving  "winders,"  or  treads  which  taper  at  one  end.  Such 
construction  is  a  source  of  danger.  Stairways  should  be  so  planned  as  to 
bring  the  second  floor  landing  in  a  central  location,  otherwise  much  room 
will  be  wasted  in  halls  and  corridors.  If  the  construction  of  the  stairway 
necessitates  a  turn  in  direction,  aim  to  provide  a  good-sized  landing  at  the 
turning  point.  In  shape,  this  landing  may  be  square ;  or,  if  the  stairs  are 
to  make  a  complete  reversal  in  direction,  a  double  square  landing  will  be 
much  better.     Every  precaution  must  be  taken  to  avoid  stumbling  points 


ARCHITECTURE 


201 


7ir5l  Floor  Plan 


in  the  construction  of  a  stairway,  and  every  riser  must  measure  exactly  the 
same  in  height. 

The  most  economical  construction  is  that  in  which  one  flight  of  stairs 
follows  under  another.     The  vertical  section  drawing  will  in  such  a  case 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


help  US  to  estimate  the  proper  amount  of  headroom  which  must  be  allowed 
between  them.  About  /'-o"  is  a  sufficient  space.  In  drawing  the  plan,  stairs 
going  up  above  the  head  are  usually  dotted  above  the  6-0"  level  (Fig.  29). 
The  height  of  the  eaves  will  depend  upon  the  general  proportions  of  the 
house  as  a  whole,  and  also  upon  the  headroom  allowed  for  the  stairs.  The 
eaves  should  be  so   placed    as    to    add    to    the  feeling  of    stability  in  the 


I 


ARCHITECTURE 


appearance  of  the  house,  avoiding  a  top-heavy  or  unbalanced  effect.  The 
matter  of  the  general  proportions  of  the  house  as  seen  from  the  outside  is 
very  important.  In  the  city,  conditions  prevail  which  make  it  impossible 
for  us  to  govern  the  proportions  of  the  average  city  house,  and  they  are 
universally  high  and  narrow.  But  in  the  country  the  question  of  beauty 
of  proportion  should  receive  great  attention. 


204 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


TTon\   Elevafion 


Scale  i'-i: 


Location  of  Windows.  Two  important  requirements  should  govern 
the  placing  of  windows  in  the  plans.  In  the  first  place,  they  must  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  life  within  the  house ;  they  must  be  sufficient  in 
number  and  so  disposed  as  to  provide  the  proper  amount  of  light  and 
ventilation.  At  the  same  time,  they  must  not  be  so  numerous  nor  so 
placed  as  to  destroy  wall  spaces  for  furniture.  Secondly,  windows  should 
be  so  placed  as  to  enhance  the  exterior  design  of  the  house.  Often  it  is 
possible  to  move  a  window  a  few  inches  to  the  right  or  left,  securing  in 


ARCHITECTURE 
O 


206 


^ 

^ 

^rfifs^zzi^Eziiiizi^iz: 


S.E.E  I  evation. 

Fig.  33 

this  way  an  improved  appearance  of  the  outside,  without  interfering  with 
comfort  or  convenience. 

The  Cellar  Plan.  After  the  plans  for  the  first  and  second  floors  are 
made  to  harmonize  in  all  the  parts  considered,  the  plan  for  the  cellar 
should  be  drawn.  The  wall,  if  of  stone,  should  be  about  i8"  thick.  If 
there  is  a  bay-window  on  the  first  floor,  the  foundation  for  it  need  not 
necessarily  be  continued  to  the  depth  of  the  cellar.  It  should,  however, 
be  carried  below  the  reach  of  frost,  about  3-0"  below  grade.  The  location 
of  the  chimney  is  determined  from  the  plan  of  the  first  floor.  Remember 
that  two  flues  must  be  constructed,  one  for  the  furnace  and  one  for  the 
kitchen  range.       Locate  the    furnace  as    near  the    center  of    its   work  as 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


NW.   Elevation. 

Fig.  34 


Scale  i-=l' 


possible,  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  very  long  pipes  ;  the  shorter  the  pipe 
the  more  direct  will  be  the  delivery  of  heat.  The  furnace  pipes  should 
have  as  much  of  an  inclination  or  pitch  as  possible,  in  order  to  assist  the 
natural  tendency  of  heated  air  to  rise.  The  degree  of  inclination  necessary 
to  secure  the  best  results  from  furnace  pipes  is  a  question  that  helps  to 
determine  the  depth  of  the  cellar.  The  pipes  conveying  the  heat  to  the 
first-floor  rooms  should  open  into  the  rooms  near  the  floor  level.  Some- 
times registers  are  placed  in  the  floor,  and  by  this  means  the  heat  is  carried 
more  directly  than  is  possible  with  wall  registers ;  but  there  are  objections 
to  offset  this,  as  registers  are  liable  to  collect  dust  and  dirt,  and  they  often 
interfere  with  the  placing  of  carpets  and  rugs.     The  construction  of  the 


ARCHITECTURE 


207 


Rear  E  levation. 

Fig.  35 


Scale  i'=r 


house  should  be  such  that  the  heating  pipes  for  the  second  floor  should 
pass  through  the  closets,  if  possible,  so  that  they  may  be  reached  without 
interfering  with  the  plastering.  If  this  is  not  practicable,  the  pipes  may 
be  somewhat  flattened  and  carried  up  between  the  studs  of  a  partition. 
The  location  of  registers  should  be  plainly  marked  in  the  plans  (see  Figures 
29  and  30). 

While  planning  the  heating  apparatus  we  must  remember  that  a  very 
important  feature  is  the  duct  which  conveys  fresh  air  from  out  of  doors  to 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


the  furnace.  This 
duct  should  open 
towards  the  direc- 
tion of  the  prevail- 
ing winds  and 
should  be  of  gener- 
ous size,  for  all  the 
air  to  be  heated  for 
the  entire  house 
must  come  through 
this  duct.  Many 
a  house  is  poorly- 
heated  because  the 
fresh-air  supply  is 
inadequate.  In  the 
cellar  there  should 
be  constructed, 
also,  bins  for  fuel. 
These  bins  should 
be  located  at  or 
near  the  cellar  win- 
dows, so  that  they 
may  be  filled  from 
the  outside  of  the 
house.  Another 
desirable  feature  of 
the  house  would  be  a  room  shut  off  from  the  heat  of  the  furnace,  where 
vegetables,  fruits  and  other  provisions  may  be  kept  (Fig.  31).  A  doorway 
should  be  cut  in  the  cellar  wall,  so  that  ashes  may  be  conveniently  removed. 
Plan  carefully  the  places  where  gas  and  water  pipes  shall  enter,  and  where 
the  drain-pipe  shall  leave  the  cellar. 

Roof  and  Chimney  Construction.  In  the  accompanying  elevations, 
Figures  32,  33,  34  and  35,  the  gambrel  roof  is  used,  although  any  other 
style  desired  by  the  student  may  be  adapted  to  the  problem  (Fig.  36). 
When  the  sMnt  of  the  roof  cuts  off  the  height  of  the  chambers,  the  dormer 


#^"r3 


ARCHITECTURE  209 

window  is  often  used.  This  construction  admits  light,  allows  headroom, 
and  also  gives  variety  to  the  otherwise  severe  appearance  of  the  roof  on 
the  outside.  Two  examples  of  dormer  windows  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying elevations,  one  with  a  pitch  roof  and  one  with  a  hip  roof  con- 
struction. 

The  chimney  should  rest  firmly  upon  a  solid  footing  of  stone  or 
cement  built  under  the  cellar  floor.  If  this  foundation  is  not  sufficiently 
solid  there  is  apt  to  be  unequal  settling,  causing  cracks  in  the  plastering 
about  the  chimney. 

Avoid  any  construction  that  will  locate  the  chimney  in  a  valley  of 
the  roof,  and  see  that  the  chimney  top  rises  well  above  the  ridge,  so  that 
the  currents  of  air  passing  over  the  house  will  cause  a  partial  vacuum  in 
the  chimney  and  so  induce  an  up  draught. 

Comfort  and  Beauty  of  Interior.  Thus  far  in  our  problem  we  have 
dealt  only  with  the  essential  features  of  house  construction ;  but  a  good 
architect  in  planning  a  house  would  add  many  features  pertaining  both  to 
comfort  and  to  beauty.  For  instance,  there  may  be  a  window-seat  here, 
a  built-in  bookcase  there,  a  hall  closet  for  coats  and  umbrellas,  a  genuine 
hearth  and  fireplace,  instead  of  the  imitations  to  be  seen  in  many  modern 
houses.  There  may  be  linen  closets,  kitchen  and  bathroom  cabinets,  moth- 
proof cedar  closets,  and  a  host  of  other  household  conveniences  planned 
as  part  of  the  construction,  all  tending  to  enhance  the  individuality  of  the 
house  and  helping  to  make  it  a  real  home. 

As  a  result  of  these  problems,  the  student  will  be  led  to  observe  more 
closely  houses  in  process  of  construction,  and  will  gain  information  at  first 
hand  which  may  be  applied  to  similar  problems,  thus  leading  to  a  better 
understanding  of  the  importance  of  architecture  as  related  to  practical  life. 

Problem  IV  —  A  City  House 

In  planning  the  drawings  for  a  city  house  the  architect  is  obliged  to 
work  under  many  restrictions,  and  under  conditions  that  may  be  tei;med 
unnatural.  The  streets  are  paved  from  curb  to  curb,  and  often  the  open 
space  at  the  rear  of  the  dwelling  is  heavily  flagged  also,  so  that  there  is  no 
chance  for  grass  or  trees  or  flowers    to  grow.     The  building  lots  are   of 


210 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


uniform  size  and  shape,  and  the  lines  of  frontage  must  be  kept  with  mathe- 
matical precision.  The  houses  are  built  close  together,  in  compact  blocks, 
instead  of  being  placed  in  separate  lots,  with  a  grass-plot  or  area  of  air  and 
light  around  each  dwelling.  There  are  so  many  people  and  land  is  valued 
at  so  high  a  figure  that  the  great  danger,  in  crowded  tenement  districts,  is 
that  sanitary  or  health-preserving  conditions  will  be  neglected  or  impos- 
sible. Human  beings,  like  plants,  require  sunlight  and  air,  in  order  that 
they  may  grow  strong  and  vigorous. 

Every  city  has  its  code  of  building  laws,  made  for  the  mutual  protec- 
tion of  all  its  people,  and  these  laws  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  archi- 
tect when  he  is  planning  a  structure.  For  instance,  in  many  cities  there 
is  a  law  which  requires  every  building  to  be  made  of  some  non-inflammable 
material,  such  as  brick,  stone  or  cement,  in  order  that  fire  may  be  resisted 
or  impeded.  Before  he  can  draw  the  plans  of  a  house  the  architect  must 
know  of  what  it  is  to  be  constructed,  and  he  must  also  be  able  to  use  in  his 
drawings  the  conventions  or  symbols  which  indicate  these  various  materials, 
as  shown  in  Plate  III,  on  the  opposite  page. 


ARCHITECTURE 


LiTil-el                            

Glass 

1                              1 

1 

3- 

i 

1 

Si  n 

= 

GreaA      //W/^/ 

r  »,„.„    1 

-Horizontal  Sechoix 


a^!^:Zy 


r 

h- 

"^ 

1          IL^II 

^"'"^•/— h- 

1= 

h 


C=4 


1. 1  e  va<-ion. 


212  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

^A^alls  and  Chimneys.  Walls  separating  the  individual  houses  in 
a  block  are  known  as  party-walls,  because  they  are  the  property  of  the 
owners  of  the  respective  houses,  and  the  width  of  the  lot  upon  which  a 
city  building  stands  is  measured  from  center  to  center  of  these  party-walls. 
Twenty  feet  is  the  average  width  of  a  city  lot,  although  this  standard  varies 
in  different  cities.  The  chimneys  of  city  houses  are  usually  built  into  the 
side,  or  party-walls,  and  very  often  they  connect  with  fireplaces  in  the  dif- 
ferent rooms,  designed  not  so  much  for  heating  purposes  as  for  ventilation 
and  ornament.  A  good  fireplace  and  mantel  of  simple  and  sincere  con- 
struction in  a  room  is  always  an  attractive  feature  in  its  furnishings.  The 
back  wall  of  the  fireplace,  according  to  building  laws,  must  not  be  built 
nearer  than  four  inches  from  the  party-line.  Each  fireplace  connecting 
with  the  chimney  should  have  its  separate  flue,  and  this  necessitates  a 
"topping  out"  of  each  chimney  with  as  many  flues  as  there  are  fireplaces 
in  the  house. 

Light  and  Ventilation.  As  there  are  no  side  yards,  the  city  house 
must  be  lighted  from  the  two  ends  or  from  the  top,  and  it  is  in  the  placing 
of  windows  and  in  the  location  and  proportion  of  the  entrance  that  the 
designer  finds  almost  his  sole  opportunity  for  giving  individuality  or  dis- 
tinction to  the  exterior  of  the  structure.  The  windows  need  not  follow 
with  mathematical  order  in  every  story,  but  some  device  of  grouping  may 
be  used  so  that  the  spaces  may  not  be  monotonous.  Several  windows 
grouped  together,  as  in  Fig.  37,  not  only  furnish  an  attractive  feature  in  the 
room,  but  they  apparently  reduce  the  height  of  the  exterior  and  add  dignity 
to  the  whole  design.  Avoid  the  commonplace  and  uninteresting,  at  the 
same  time  keeping  close  to  simplicity  and  to  structural  lines.  Over  doors 
and  windows  there  may  be  placed  a  lintel,  as  in  Greek  examples,  or  the 
openings  may  be  arched,  as  in  Roman  styles  (Plate  III,  page  21 1). 

When  a  room  is  so  located  that  it  cannot  be  lighted  from  the  front  or 
back  windows  of  the  house  it  is  necessary  to  introduce  shafts  or  wells  to 
let  in  the  light  and  air  from  above,  as  in  Fig.  38.  No  room  should  be 
constructed  which  does  not  in  some  way  have  access  to  light  and  air. 
Here,  again,  the  designer  finds  himself  greatly  limited.  If  we  plan  to  have 
many  rooms  on  a  floor,  our  design,  if  it  admits  daylight  and  ventilation 
into  every  room,  will  be  long  from  front  to  back,  and  thus  not  adapted  to 


ARCHITECTURE 


213 


the  ordinary  city  lot.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  we  bring  all 
rooms  to  the  front  or  back  of 
the  house,  we  can  plan  but 
few  rooms  on  a  fioor,  and 
several  stories  will  be  needed 
to  provide  the  rooms  which 
the  needs  of  the  family  de- 
mand. This  is  the  plan  usually 
followed,  and  city  houses  are 
built  high  and  narrow,  instead 
of  occupying  the  ground  space 
that  is  available  in  the  town 
or  country.  Stairs,  therefore, 
become  an  important  factor 
in  city  houses. 

Strength  and  Solidity. 
In  designing  the  front  of  a 
brick  building  it  is  very  impor- 
tant that  supporting  piers  be 
preserved  in  uninterrupted 
lines,  especially  at  the  junc- 
ture with  party-walls.  We 
often  see  a  store  front,  with 
a  large  mass  of  masonry  appar- 
ently resting  upon  the  first 
story,  of  plate  glass.  This 
does  not  seem  reasonable  and 
does  not  satisfy  our  sense  of 
fitness.  We  know  that  there 
are  different  ways  of  support- 
ing walls,  and  that  sometimes 
the  means  of  support  do  not 
appear  in  the  finished  house, 
yet  the  appearance  as  well  as 


Fig,  38 


214  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

the  fact  of  strength  and  soHdity  is  necessary  in  house  construction.  We 
do  not  consider  a  house  beautiful  or  well  designed  if  something  of  the  con- 
struction is  not  apparent  in  the  completed  building. 

Arrangement  of  Rooms.  The  arrangement  of  rooms  in  a  city 
house  is  a  problem  that  requires  careful  planning.  For  instance,  the 
parlor,  or  reception-room,  hall,  and  possibly  the  library,  may  be  grouped  on 
the  first  floor.  The  kitchen  and  dining-room  may  be  in  the  basement,  or 
at  the  top  of  the  house,  if  there  is  an  elevator,  while  the  bedrooms  and 
bathroom  may  properly  be  placed  on  the  intermediate  floors. 

Before  attempting  a  problem  of  this  kind,  study  some  city  houses  in 
the  process  of  building,  and  try  to  get  all  the  information  you  can  at  first 
hand.  Then  draw  the  plans  and  elevations  necessary  to  make  a  complete 
set  of  drawings  for  a  typical  city  house.  Try  to  introduce  some  individ- 
uality into  the  problem,  at  the  same  time  giving  full  consideration  to  city 
conditions  and  to  the  immediate  environment  of  the  proposed  structure. 
As  a  person  can  at  all  times  preserve  his  individuality  while  recognizing 
the  customs  and  laws  of  his  country,  so  a  house  may  be  an  integral  part  of 
a  city  block  and  yet  retain  its  own  unique  characteristics. 

Problem  V  —  A  Public  Building 
In  addition  to  buildings  used  as  homes  and  dwelling-places,  many 
other  kinds  of  structures  are  necessary  in  the  life  of  any  community. 
Certain  classes  of  buildings,  such  as  stores,  banks,  factories  and  shops,  are 
for  the  use  of  private  corporations,  while  others  are  for  the  use  of  the 
general  public.  Every  city  or  town  requires  buildings  for  public  use,  such 
as  a  town-hall,  court-house,  post-office,  library,  school  or  church,  and  the 
services  of  a  good  architect  are  frequently  employed  upon  problems  of  this 
nature.  Definite  knowledge  of  the  purpose  of  such  a  building,  its  contents, 
the  uses  it  is  to  serve,  an  estimate  of  its  necessary  size,  together  with  an 
understanding  of  its  location  and  of  its  relation  to  surrounding  buildings, 
are  points  which  the  architect  must  settle  before  he  begins  to  make  even 
preliminary  sketches.  Suppose,  for  instance,  he  is  asked  to  submit  draw- 
ings for  a  fire-engine  house, —  an  important  if  not  indispensable  public 
building  in  any  village,  town  or  city.  The  architect  must  know  whether  the 
house  is  to  contain  the  engine   alone,  or   a  hose-cart  and  ladder-truck  as 


ARCHITECTURE  215 

well.  Provision  must  be  made  for  stalls  for  the  horses,  and  for  sleeping 
accommodations  for  the  men,  if  the  town  is  large  enough  to  support  a  per- 
manent corps  of  firemen.  When  these  conditions  and  requirements  are 
ascertained,  estimates  must  be  made  of  the  amount  of  space  necessary  to 
accommodate  all  needs.  This  estimate  must  be  adapted  to  suit  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  plot  upon  which  the  building  is  to  stand.  In  planning  spaces 
it  is  unsafe  to  trust  to  luck  or  even  to  theory.  The  minimum  space  for 
each  requirement  should  be  determined,  and  then  a  considerable  margin 
should  be  allowed  for  working  room.  For  instance,  a  fire-engine  requires  a 
floor  space  of  22'-6"  x  6'-o",  with  a  height  of  8'-8",  but  at  least  three  feet 
of  working  room  should  be  allowed  on  each  side  of  the  floor  space.  The 
stalls  for  the  horses  must  be  made  either  small  enough  to  compel  the  horses 
to  stand  at  all  times,  or  large  enough  to  permit  them  to  lie  down  and  get  up 
with  ease.  It  is  possible  to  construct  a  stall,  which,  because  of  its  size  or 
shape,  allows  a  horse  to  become  bound  or  "cast"  when  he  lies  down. 
This  is  of  course  a  source  of  great  danger  to  the  safety  and  life  of  a  horse. 
Uninterrupted  runways  are  also  indispensable,  so  that  a  horse  may  run 
from  his  stall  and  take  his  place  instantly  at  the  sound  of  the  alarm. 
Other  practical  features,  such  as  a  hose-tower  for  drying  hose,  a  rack  for 
storing  it,  a  heating  apparatus  and  many  devices  for  aiding  quick  and  effec- 
tive adjustment  must  be  familiar  to  the  architect  who  would  attempt  to 
draw  the  plans  for  a  building  of  this  kind.  You  see  that  an  architect  must 
possess  a  great  fund  of  information  along  many  lines. 

Design  for  a  Public  Library.  The  problem  chosen  for  the  last  of 
this  series  is  to  design  a  building  to  be  used  for  a  public  library  in  a 
country  town.  The  student  is  to  draw  plans  and  elevations  similar  to 
those  shown  in  Figures  39,  40,  41,  and  42.  Before  making  preliminary 
sketches,  consider  the  purposes  for  which  the  building  is  to  be  used. 
Primarily,  it  is  to  serve  as  a  repository  and  storehouse  for  books,  and  in 
addition  it  will  naturally  be  used  as  a  public  club-house,  where  the  citizens 
of  the  town  may  come  to  read  or  study  undisturbed.  Start,  then,  with  the 
idea  of  a  general  reading-room.  In  a  very  simple  library  building  the 
books  may  be  kept  in  cases  or  stacks  placed  against  or  near  the  walls  of 
this  room,  but  if  the  books  are  numerous,  or  the  town  is  growing  and  able 
to  support  an  ever-increasing  library,  a  separate  room  or  alcove  should  be 


216 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


PtAM        OF 


provided,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39.  Other  desirable  features  would  be  a 
room  for  children's  use,  a  reference-room,  in  which  to  keep  books  which 
may    be    used    in    the    building    but    which    may    not    be    borrowed,     a 


ARCHITECTURE 


'LAN     or 


I  I  I  I 


lecture-room,  a  museum,  an  art  gallery,  etc.  It  will  be  a  good  plan  to  make 
a  list  of  rooms  which  it  would  be  desirable  to  provide  in  connection  with  a 
library,  and,  as  you  work,  incorporate  or  eliminate  these  ideas  as  seems 
best.      Rarely  will  you  be   able  to    use  the    first  sketches  you    make   in 


218 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


1  I  I  l-M-I'M  t,i,l 


Fig.  41 


planning  a  building.  An  architect  is  willing  to  revise  and  readjust  his 
sketches  many  times,  in  the  effort  to  adapt  his  ideas  to  conditions  that  he 
must  meet. 

There  must  be  adequate  provision  for  heating  the  building,  for  lava- 
tories, for  storing  fuel  and  for  a  storage  or  work-room,  and  these  features 
you  will  probably  wish  to  locate  in  the  basement  (Fig.  40).  This,  of  course, 
necessitates  a  stairway,  which  must  be  indicated  in  the  plans. 

Style  of  Architecture.  If  our  building  were  to  be  a  storehouse  for 
grain,  coal,  or  for  other  commodities,  the  idea  of  strength  and  utility  would 
determine  to  a  large  extent  the  design  of  the  exterior.  But  a  library  is 
associated  with  everything  that  is  worthy  and  noble.  It  is  a  record  of  the 
best  thoughts  of  all  ages,  and  the  building  which  houses  such  treasures 
should  be  beautiful,  refined  and  dignified.  Its  architecture  may  appro- 
priately be  classical  in  style,  for,  as  a  library  of  books  is  a  compilation  of 
the  records  of  civilization,  it  seems  fitting  that  its  receptacle  should  suggest 
something  of  the  ancient  origin  of  its  contents.  Again,  the  architecture 
of   the   Greeks   has    never    been    surpassed.     It    is    simple,    dignified    and 


ARCHITECTURE 


219 


..-i:__,-:jji.,..u^ijj,4j,_J_,m__p_l 


I  I  I  1.1,1 


©S^g   SfegV^TdOW, 


sincere,  and  though  we  would  not  desire  to  have  all  the  buildings  in  a  town 
based  on  Greek  ideas,  the  presence, of  one  fine  example  will  set  a  high 
standard  and  mark  our  library  with  individuality  and  distinction. 

One  way  of  emphasizing  the  entrance  to  a  public  building,  so  that  it 
will  become  an  important  feature  in  the  general  architectural  effect,  is  by 
means  of  a  portico  or  covered  platform  (Figures  41,  42  and  43).  If  we 
use  this  feature  the  question  of  columns  becomes  important.  In  Grecian 
architecture  there  are  three  distinct  types  of  columns,  known  as  the  Doric, 
the  Ionic  and  the  Corinthian  (page  307).  The  Ionic  style  or  order,  easily 
recognized  by  the  spiral  curves  or  volutes  in  the  capital,  has  been  chosen 
for  use  in  the  problem  illustrated.  The  size  of  the  column  is  regulated  by 
rules  of  the  order,  and  the  module  or  unit  of  measure  is  the  radius  of  the 
shaft,  each  part  of  the  column  being  some  fraction  or  some  multiple  of  the 
module.  The  Ionic  column  as  used  by  the  Greeks  was  1 8  modules,  or  9 
diameters,  high,  and  we  must  keep  close  to  these  proportions  if  we  wish  to 
preserve  the  harmony  of  the  whole  design. 

Having  established  the  height  of  our  portico,  we  obtain  the  diameter 
by  dividing  by  9,  if  we  wish  to  use  full-length  columns.     We  can,  if  we 


ART  EDUCAT70N—HIGH  SCHOOL 


I?: 


ARCHITECTLTRE  221 

choose,  introduce  pedestals  to  lessen  the  height  of  the  columns,  dividing 
the  remaining  distance  by  9,  to  obtain  the  diameter.  This,  of  course,  would 
result  in  smaller  columns.  For  the  building  illustrated  in  Fig.  43  full- 
length  columns  were  used,  because  of  the  simplicity  and  dignity  of  the 
unbroken  lines  of  the  shaft. 

Greek  columns  usually  taper  slightly  toward  the  top,  and  here  again 
their  inventors  have  given  evidence  of  fine  thinking,  for  the  tapering  is  not 
straight,  but  is  expressed  by  means  of  a  subtle  curve,  called  the  "entasis." 
The  largest  diameter,  instead  of  being  at  the  base,  is  about  one  third  of  the 
way  up.  This  peculiar  construction  of  the  column  serves  to  correct  an 
optical  illusion  and  makes  the  column  appear  straight.  If  its  construction 
were  really  straight  and  uniform  the  column  would  not  appear  so. 

Some  weight,  real  or  apparent,  must  be  upheld  by  the  columns,  and  so 
the  pediment  or  gable  is  used,  offering  a  space  that  is  highly  suitable  for 
sculptured  ornament.  The  pediment  also  serves  to  break  the  otherwise 
monotonous  structure  of  the  roof,  and  furnishes  oblique  lines,  which  seem 
to  reconcile  the  opposing  forces  of  the  strong  vertical  and  horizontal  lines. 

The  only  remaining  ornamental  feature  which  we  may  with  propriety 
use  in  this  problem  is  the  cornice.  This  is  a  moulded  projection,  which  is 
used  to  crown  or  finish  an  outside  or  inside  wall.  The  Greeks  made  much 
of  the  cornice,  and  produced  many  beautiful  mouldings  in  which  the  effects 
of  light  and  shade  were  considered  important,  as  well  as  the  proportion 
and  arrangement  of  the  forms  themselves.  Notice  the  cornice  used  in 
Fig.  43.  The  little  brackets  or  modillions,  each  beautifully  proportioned 
and  modelled,  are  introduced  at  regular  intervals,  making  a  well-marked 
and  effective  line  at  that  level. 

Light.  The  windows  of  the  library  should  provide  a  plentiful  supply 
of  light,  and  as  it  is  desirable  that  the  light  should  be  admitted,  as  far  as  is 
possible,  above  the  heads  of  people,  we  will  plan  our  windows  full  size  to 
their  tops,  finishing  them  with  the  flat  lintel  of  Greek  usage,  rather  than 
with  the 'Roman  arch. 

A  perspective  drawing  of  a  proposed,  building  is  often  made  from  the 
working  drawings  by  mechanical  means.  Fig.  43  was  made  in  this  way. 
If  you  wish  to  make  a  similar  perspective  view  from  your  own  plans,  follow 
the  methods  illustrated  on  page  68. 


CHAPTER   VI 

DESIGN 

Origin  of  Design.  In  the  civilized  world  we  are  surrounded  by  objects 
that  have  been  made  for  some  definite  purpose.  Many  of  these  objects  are 
so  necessary  to  our  comfort  and  convenience  that  we  have  grown  to  think  of 
them,  not  as  the  work  of  man's  brain,  but  as  natural  conditions  without 
which  existence  itself  would  hardly  be  possible.  We  consider  houses,  .cloth- 
ing and  cooked  food  almost  as  essential  to  us  as  air,  water  and  light,  for 
civilized  man  needs  a  house  to  shelter  him,  clothing  to  protect  his  body 
from  cold  and  heat,  and  utensils  with  which  to  prepare  and  serve  his  food. 
'Vehicles  for  the  transportation  of  himself  and  the  numerous  commodities 
which  he  requires  are  also  necessary  to  the  conduct  of  his  business,  and  so 
are  the  various  devices  employed  for  the  transmission  of  his  ideas  to  his 
fellow-man.  All  these  things  we  now  consider  indispensable,  and  we  forget 
that  for  every  manufactured  object  in  the  world  there  must  have  been  an 
originator,  a  cfeator.  Some  mind  must  have  planned,  centuries  ago,  the 
rude  hut  which  has  developed  into  the  modern  dwelling-house,  with  all  its 
appointments  for  use  and  beauty.  The  canoe  of  the  savage  or  the  raft  of  the 
barbarian  was  the  result  of  man's  desire  to  transport  a  weight  over  the  water, 
and  the  modern  steamship  has  been  evolved  from  this  primitive  idea. 

Expression  of  Ideas.  In  the  early  days,  the  designer  was  also  the 
manufacturer  of  the  product.  We  can  imagine  that  the  first  manifestation  of 
his  idea  was  by  means  of  some  tangible  material,  and  that  he  did  not  express 
his  thought  in  a  drawing.  But  that  expression  of  his  thought,  whether  it 
was  in  wood,  stone  or  metal,  or  set  down  on  paper  by  means  of  a  drawing, 
was  a  design.  The  derivation  of  the  word  suggests  its  broad  meaning,  for 
we  find  that  it  comes  from  a  root  that  means  to  mark  out  for  a  p2irpose. 


DESIGN  223 

Obedience  to  Law.  In  the  study  of  design  we  seek  to  understand 
the  underlying  principles  that  govern  artistic  expression  of  all  kinds.  As 
in  spoken  or  written  language,  there  are  essential  laws  that  every  writer 
and  speaker  observes,  and,  as  in  musical  art,  there  must  be  strict  conformity 
to  fixed  principles  or  rules,  so  in  graphic  art  there  are  certain  principles  of 
beauty  that  the  student  must  grasp  before  he  can  arrive  at  genuine  art 
appreciation,  and  before  he  can  himself  produce  creative  or  original  work  of 
merit.  Beauty  is  the  result  of  obedience  to  law;  it  is  not  the  result  of 
chance  or  accident. 

Statement  of  Principles.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  chapter  briefly  to 
define  and  illustrate  these  principles,  so  that  the  student  may  be  equipped 
to  some  extent  with  standards  or  tests  by  which  he  may  estimate  the  beauty 
or  the  merit  of  created  objects  in  the  world  about  him.  There  are  three 
heads  under  which  the  work  of  a  designer  may  be  classified,  according  to 
the  various  motives  that  actuate  his  work.  We  know  that  some  designs 
are  purely  constructive  in  their  character,  such  as  plans  for  buildings,  for 
bridges,  for  machinery  or  for  various  kinds  of  furniture.  Other  designs  are 
pictorial,  and  under  this  head  may  be  placed  all  landscapes,  illustrations, 
portraits  and  whatever  is  done  from  purely  representative  motives.  If  the 
designer  has  a  decorative  purpose  in  mind,  his  work  will  be  of  still  another 
character,  and  he  may  plan  ornament,  such  as  sculptured  pillars  for  buildings, 
patterns  for  textiles  or  wall-coverings,  or  mural  decorations.  But  in  what- 
ever field  he  may  operate,  the  designer  must  work  in  conformity  to  principles 
of  law  and  order.  These  principles  have  been  variously  defined  by  different 
authorities,  and  the  different  terminology  employed  has  led  to  more  or  less 
confusion,  but  it  is  evident  to  the  student  that  'the  end  and  aim  of  each 
authority  is  the  same.  All  are  united  in  the  effort  to  formulate  a  statement 
of  the  principles  governing  design.  In  this  book  these  principles  are  known 
as  the  principles  of  Rhythm,  Balance  and  Harmony. 

The  Principle  of  Rhythm.  By  rhythm  is  meant  a  consistent  relation 
and  connection  of  parts  that  enables  the  eye  to  find  its  way  through  all  the 
details  of  a  design.  Rhythm  is  often  spoken  of  as  related  movement,  and 
the  decorative  arrangement  of  units  known  as  borders  illustrates  the  principle 
in  a  simple  and  elementary  way.  Fig.  i  is  an  orderly  arrangement  of  lines 
by  means  of  which  the  eye  is  carried  from  one  unit  to  another,  agreeably 


224 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


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nonnjai 


pi^/^x^xa^ 


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f  t  f  t  ■§- "f^  f  ^  t 


TYYYYYYY 
YYYYYYYYY 
[YYYYYYYY 
YYYYYYYYY 


and  without  interruption.  Con- 
tinuous and  related  movement  is 
established  by  the  order  in  which 
these  units  appear.  It  would  be 
easy  to  imagine  this  movement 
interrupted  by  a  confused  arrange- 
ment of  these  same  units  or  by 
a  disturbance  of  their  uniform 
spacing.  The  Greek  egg-and-dart 
ornament  and  the  scroll  motive 
shown  in  Figs.  2  and  3  are  classic 
examples  often  used  at  the  pres- 
ent time  that  show  fine  rhythmic 
movement,  although  they  possess 
other  elements  of  beauty  in  addi- 
tion to  rhythm.  Fig.  4  shows  a 
surface  pattern  in  which  a  unit  is 
distributed  over  a  space  in  such  a 
way  as  to  lead  the  eye  consistently 
through  all  parts  of  the  pattern. 
The  units  occur  at  regular  inter- 
vals, like  rhythmic  heartbeats. 
Fig.  5  shows  the  same  design  in 
values. 

Exercise  I.  On  squared 
paper  make  a  rhythmic  arrange- 
ment for  a  border,  using  only 
vertical  and  horizontal  lines. 
The  width  of  the  border  and  the 
relative  lengths  of  the  lines  in  the 
unit  may  be  determined  by  the 
student.  Make  several  arrange- 
ments and  transfer  the  best  of 
these  to  tinted  paper.  Ink  in 
with  brush  and  black  water-color. 


Note.  Designs  may  be  transferred 
by  means  of  carbon  paper,  or  by  covering 
tlie  back  of  the  design  with  a  "  rubbing  " 
of  very  soft  grapliite  or  lead.  Tlace  the 
rubbed  surface  next  to  the  paper  or  other 
material  upon  which  the  decoration  is  to 
be  transferred,  and  trace  the  design  with 
a  hard  lead  pencil.  The  impression  thus 
made  may  be  covered  with  brush  lines  or 
washes. 

Exercise  II.  On  tinted 
paper  make  two  tracings  of  the 
border  selected  in  Exercise  I. 
Finish  one  tracing  with  a  brush 
line  of  medium  width,  and  in  the 
other  use  a  line  two  or  three 
times  as  wide.  Note  the  differ- 
ence in  effect. 

Exercise  III  Repeat  these 
same  ideas  in  surface  rhythms, 
using  only  vertical  and  horizontal 
lines  in  the  unit.  Figs.  6,  7,  8 
and  9  show  examples  of  simple 
border  and  surface  rhythms, 
designed  on  squared  paper  and 
transferred  to  tinted  paper  for 
finishing  in  ink. 

Another  Form  of  Rhythm. 
We  have  seen  that  the  repetition 
of  lines  or  units  carries  the  eye  in 
continuous  movement,  and  that 
the  direction  of  this  movement 
depends  upon  the  arrangement 
or  placing  of  the  units  employed. 
Rhythm  is  obtained  whenever 
related  movement  is  established, 
and  it  does  not  depend  solely  on 


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Fig.  9 


226 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


% 


Fig.  12.     From  the  Japanese 


simple  repetition.  The  curling  of  smoke  as  it 
issues  from  a  chimney,  the  flowing  waters  of  a 
stream,  the  flight  of  birds,  the  action  of  fish 
as  they  swim,  all  suggest  a  movement  that  is 
rhythmic  in  its  quality.  In  nature  we  see  re- 
lated movement  in  the  consistent  lines  of  direc- 
tion taken  by  tree  trunks  and  branches,  in  the 
growths  of  grains  and  grasses,  and  in  the  graceful 
movement  of  many  animals,  such  as  the  cat  and 
the  tiger  or  lion.  Fig.  lo  is  a  diagram  that 
shows  a  certain  relationship  between  the  curved 
lines  and  the  structural  or  boundary  lines  of  the 
space.  The  enclosed  lines  are  not  parallel  to 
each  other  nor  to  the  sides  of  the  rectangle, 
yet  the  eye  meets  no  resistance  when  it  travels 
along  the  direction  indicated  by  all  these  lines ; 
its  movement  is  rhythmic.  Fig.  1 1  shows  a 
flower  arrangement  based  on  these  same  lines. 
The  lines  of  growth  are  consistent  with  one 
another  and  with  the  structural  lines  by  which 
they  are  enclosed.  Such  a  design  is  rhythmic, 
and  the  principle  illustrated  here  is  the  govern- 
ing principle  of  many  works  of  art.  Fig.  12  is 
from  a  Japanese  print  in  which  the  rhythmic 
arrangement  of  line  is  very  apparent. 

The  placing  of  the  sky-line  in  the  landscape 
composition  begun  in  Fig.  13  suggests  rhythm 
because  of  its  relationship  to  the  leading  lines  of 
the  enclosing  space,  and  this  quality  is  empha- 
sized in  Fig.  14  by  flowing  lines  that  may  be- 
come a  brook  or  roadway.  The  addition  of  trees 
in  Fig.  15  recognizes  the  vertical  lines  of  the 
enclosure,  and  supplies,  also,  a  feeling  of  balance. 
The  elements  presented  in  Fig.  1 5  are  structural, 
though    they   are    capable    of    infinite   variety, 


DESIGN 


227 


and  are  lines  upon  which  almost  all 
landscape  compositions  are  based.  In 
the  "  Cumasan  Sibyl,"  by  P^lihu  Vedder 
(Fig.  1 6),  we  see  that  the  important 
lines  of  the  landscape  are  all  tending 
in  the  direction  of  the  horizontal  lines 
of  the  enclosing  rectangle,  and  that 
the  wind-blown  drapery  and  hair  as- 
sist this  movement,  while  the  lines  of 
the  figure  form  a  rhythmic  system  that 
echoes  the  vertical  movement  of  the 
rectangle. 

Exercise  IV.     On  a  panel  of  tinted 
paper  of  some  light  grayed  tone  draw 
a   narrow  vertical    rectangle,   not  less 
than  10  inches  high.     Select  a  growth 
of  grass  or  grain  that  shows  an  interest- 
ing seed-head  and  se\-eral  long,  narrow 
leaves.     Paint  in  with  water-color  the 
main  stem,  placing  it  within   the  rec- 
tangle so  that  its  direction  is  rhythmic 
with    the   vertical    sides,    dividing   the 
space    into     interesting     relationships. 
Add  the  seed-head  and  leaves,  makmg 
these  elements,  also,  rhyth- 
mic with  the  structural  lines 
of  the  rectangle,  at  the  same 
time    being   sure  that   they 
r  et  a  i  n    the     characteristic 
growth  of    the    plant.      Cut 
out    the    composition    and 
mount  it  artistically. 

Exercise  V,  Draw  a 
horizontal  oblong  of  pleasing 
proportions    upon   paper    of 


CuM^AN  Sibyl,  by  Elihu  Veddeb 
Copley  Print 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


grayed  tone.  Make  a  rhyth- 
mic division  of  the  space,, 
similar  to  the.  suggestion  in 
Fig.  14.  Lay  in  the  masses 
with  charcoal,  and  add  to  the 
sky  a  touch  of  chalk  or  col- 
ored crayon,  to  give  a  sunset 
or  cloud  effect.  Cut  out  the 
composition  and  mount  it 
artistically. 

Structural  Rhythm. 
We  have  spoken  of  the  bound- 
ary lines  in  Figs.  13,  14,  15 
and  1 6  as  stnichiral  lines  be- 
cause these  lines  determine 
the  shape  and  proportions,  or 
structure  of  the  area  enclosed. 
We  have  seen  that  rhythm  is 
produced  when  the  main  lines 
of  a  composition  are  consist- 
ent in  direction  with  the 
structural  lines.  We  may 
obtain  rhythm  by  a  similar 
process  when  the  structural 
lines  are  not  straight,  and 
when  the  area  enclosed  is  not 
rectangular.  Fig.  1 7  shows  a 
circle,  divided  by  a  line  that  is 
rhythmic  with  the  boundary, 
and  which  might  form  the 
basis  of  a  decorative  motive. 
Figs.  18  and  19  show  lines  of 
a  different  character,  still 
rhythmic  with  the  circular  out- 
line.    Flower  or  leaf  motives 


DESIGN 


might  be  applied  on  such  a  foundation  with 
satisfactory  results.  Fig.  20  shows  a  leaf 
motive  that,  while  retaining  its  character- 
istic shape,  is  still  adapted  to  the  structural 
lines  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  rhythm. 
Fig.  2 1  is  the  basis  of  many  arabesques,  or 
abstract  arrangements  of  lines  or  masses. 
In  decorating  the  Japanese  lantern  (Fig. 
22)  the  first  thought  was  to  secure  a  system 
of  lines  that  would  be  rhythmic  with  the 
structural  lines  and  with  each  other  before 
applying  definite  shapes.  Fig.  23  shows  a 
similar  plan  for  the  decoration  of  a  fan; 
the  decoration  selected  may  be  a  branch  of 
plum  blossoms,  a  spray  of  wisteria  or  any 
other  motive  desired ;  but  whatever  it  is, 
the  principle  of  rhythm  should  be  apparent 
in  adapting  the  decoration  to  the  structural 
lines. 

Exercise  VI.  In  a  circle  whose  diam- 
eter is  about  4  inches,  draw  two  or  three 
rhythmic  lines,  similar  to  those  in  Figs.  18 
and  19.  Arrange  on  these  lines  a  flower 
motive.  Compose  the  design  on  practice 
paper,  then  transfer  it  to  tinted  paper,  fin- 
ishing with  thin  washes  of  the  natural 
colors  of  the  plant. 

Exercise  VII  Make  an  abstract  de- 
sign in  a  circle,  similar  to  Fig.  2 1 .  Trans- 
fer to  tinted  paper  and  finish  in  masses  of 
black,  or  dark  gray,  allowing  the  tint  of  the 
paper  to  form  a  part  of  the  design. 

Exercise  VIII.  Using  a  lo-inch  radius 
for  the  outer  curve  and  a  5^-inch  radius  for 
the  inner  curve,  plan  a  design  for  a  fan, 


J 


::;» 


:^ 


n 


Fig.  26  4=r* 


230  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


similar  to  Fig.  23.  Place  a  rhythmic  system  of  lines  in  the  space  and  adapt 
a  plant  motive  to  these  lines.  Transfer  to  Japanese  paper  and  finish  in  light 
tints  of  naturahstic  colors. 

Rhythm  in  Constructive  Design.  Rhythm  is  a  principle  that 
must  be  observed  in  constructive,  as  well  as  in  decorative  and  pictorial 
design.  Fig.  24  shows  the  essential  elements  of  a  table,  the  horizontal  top, 
the  box  or  frame,  and  the  vertical  leg.  Upon  these  constructive  elements 
no  decoration  should  be  placed  that  would  lead  the  eye  away  from  the  gen- 
eral direction  of  these  elements.  For  this  reason  violent  curves  in  table  legs 
and  realistic  carving  are  out  of  place.  Figs.  25  and  26  show  two  legitimate 
modifications  that  add  grace  and  refinement  to  the  design,  and  at  the  same 
time  do  not  depart  very  far  from  the  essential  structural  lines  shown  in 
Fig.  24. 

In  contrast  with  the  realistic  decoration  often  placed  upon  vases,  bowls 
and  other  forms  of  pottery  is  the  simple  ornament  of  the  vases  shown  in 
Figs.  27  and  28.  In  each,  the  leaf  motive  is  so  well  adapted  to  the  surface 
that  it  seems  a  part  of  the  form  itself,  and  the  eye  is  not  distracted  by  any 
disturbance  of  the  sense  of  rhythm  that  the  beautiful  curves  of  the  vase 
forms  suggest,  as  would  be  the  case  were  realistic  roses,  birds  or  landscape 
effects  employed  as  decorations.  Compare  the  two  pieces  of  classical  furni- 
ture in  Figs.  29  and  30.  The  bride-chest  (Fig.  29)  shows  carving  that  is 
planned  with  direct  reference  to  the  surface  and  space  to  be  decorated.     It 


DESIGN 


231 


Fig.  29.    French  Bride-chest— Bavarian  National  Museu.m 


is  in  low  relief,  and  the  general  directions  of  its  lines  are  rhythmic  with  the 
structural  lines  of  the  chest.  Variety  is  obtained  by  the  division  of  the  front 
space  into  four  areas,  making  the  end  arrangements  differ  from  the  central 
spaces.  Within  each  of  these  spaces  a  design  of  rhythmic  quality  has  been 
placed  and  a  fine  relation  is  established  between  these  panels  and  the  surround- 
ing simple  areas.      The  effect  of  the  whole  is  unified,  dignified  and  beautiful. 

In  the  Venetian  table  (Fig.  30)  almost  every  constructive  element  is  lost 
in  the  elaborate  ornament.  Leaves,  flowers,  garlands,  the  human  face  are  all 
carved  in  wood,  and  used  with  every  effort  to  disguise  the  structural  lines  and 
to  obtain  a  showy  and  ornate  effect.  While  there  is  exaggerated  rhythm  in 
the  ornament,  there  is  no  recognition  of  the  structural  elements  of  the  table. 
Furniture,  of  all  things,  should  be  fitted  for  its  uses,  simple  in  line,  good  in 
proportion,  and  its  ornament  or  finish  should  not  hide  nor  obscure  its  struct- 
ural lines.  A  table  like  this  is  retained  in  museums  as  an  example  of  the 
expression  of  a  period  when  art  was  at  a  low  ebb  (the  XVII  century).  It 
serves  now  as  an  example  of  what  should  be  avoided  in  furniture  construction. 

Exercise  IX.  Draw  on  tinted  paper  the  outline  of  a  vase  form,  planned 
to  hold  long-stemmed  flowers.  Place  within  this  outline  some  leaf  or  flower 
motive,  whose  growth  permits  adaptation  to  the  form.  Finish  with  vvater- 
colors  of  a  darker  tint. 


Note  :  Vase  forms  may  be  designed  by  folding 
cutting,  freehand,  the  contour  or  profile  of  the  vase, 
will  result. 


I  sheet  of  paper  on  a  vertical  diameter  and 
Unfold  the  paper  and  a  symmetrical  design 


232 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


.  ,  :,  ^^mm.      fu   ■■■(  mM^h- 


.^^^ 


Fig.  30.     Venetian  Table  — Cursican  G.^llkhy,  Florence 

Exercise  X.  In  a  similar  way,  design  a  low  bowl  for  short-stemmed 
flowers.  Use  rhythmically  an  abstract  line  motive  for  the  decoration,  and 
finish  as  directed  in  Exercise  IX. 

Rhythm  of  Values.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  related  move- 
ment is  established  by  placing  lines  or  shapes  in  an  orderly  arrangement, 
such  as  in  the  making  of  borders  and  surface  patterns,  and  also  by  observing 
in  any  composition  a  relationship  between  the  structural  lines  and  the  lines 
appearing  as  a  part  of  the  composition.  It  is  apparent  that  related  move- 
ment can  be  produced  by  tones  of  color  or  of  light  and  dark  values.  The 
color  chart  (page  251)  is  an  example  of  color  rhythm,  because  we  find  in  it  a 
gradation  of  color  passing  from  one  hue  to  another.  If  we  begin  at  yellow, 
for  instance,  we  may  pass  through  orange,  which  is  closely  related  to  yellow, 
to  red,  which  is  closely  related  to  orange,  and  so  through  violet  and  blue  to 
green  and  around  to  yellow  again,  the  colors  being  arranged  in  this  orderly 
progression.     In  Fig.  3 1  we  see  a  graded  wash  of  tones  between  the  extremes 


DESIGN 


VAI^UE  SCAI.E 

WHITE 
W 

HIGH  LIGHT 
HL 

LIGHT 

L 

LOW  LIGHT 
LL 

MIDDLE 
M 

HIGH  DARK 
HO 

Hhb 

DARK 

0 

i^im 

LOW  DARK 
LD 

^^^1 

BLACK 
B 

^m 

ART  EDUCATION- HIGH  SCHOOL 


of  black  and  white.  This  forms  a  rhythm  of  gray  tones,  and  from  this  grada- 
tion have  been  selected  the  nine  separate  steps  that  form  the  value  scale. 
Of  course  there  are  many  more  degrees  between  white  and  black  than  the 
seven  represented  by  the  scale,  but  the  tones  of  the  scale  have  been  accepted 
and  named  as  standards,  just  as  in  music  a  scale  whose  parts  can  be  defi- 
nitely located  is  essential  to  musical  composition  and  interpretation. 

In  any  arrangement  of  values,  whether  in  a  scale,  in  a  photograph  or 
other  reproduction,  the  eye  will  travel  toward  the  point  of  greatest  contrast. 
In  Fig.  33,  the  Japanese  artist,  Hokusai,  has  skilfully  arranged  rhythmic  lines 
and  values  so  that  the  eye  is  carried  by  their  movement  along  the  undulating 
lines  of  the  wave  to  its  beautiful  crest,  where  it  breaks  into  foam.  This 
forms  the  cUmax  of  the  picture. 

Exercise  XL  Upon  a  sheet  of  white  paper  draw  five  circles,  each  an 
inch  or  more  in  diameter,  placing  them  in  a  vertical  row.     Leave  the  upper 


DESIGN- 


235 


circle  white  and  paint  the  lower 
circle  black,  using  charcoal-gray 
water-color.  Make  the  middle  cir- 
cle a  tone  half  way  between  white 
and  black.  This  will  be  middle 
gray,  and  should  match  the  tone 
marked  Middle  (M)  in  the  scale, 
Fig.  32.  Fill  the  circle  between 
middle  and  white  with  a  tone  half 
way  between  these  two  values. 
This  should  match  the  tone  marked 
Light  (L)  in  the  scale.  Fill  the 
circle  between  middle  and  black 
with  a  tone  that  matches  Dark  (D) 
in  the  scale.  You  will  then  have 
a  value  scale  of  five  tones,  includ- 
ing white,  black  and  three  tones  or 
values  of  gi'ay.  Mark  the  circles 
to  correspond  wdth  the  tones  they 
match  in  the  printed  scale. 

Exercise  XII.  In  a  circle  of 
about  3  inches  diameter  draw  the 
leaf  design  in  Fig.  20.  Make  three 
tracings  of  this.  Finish  each  trac- 
ing in  a  rhythm  of  three  steps, 
taken  from  your  own  value  scale. 
Note  the  difference  in  effect  that 
different  arrangements  of  values 
will  produce  in  the  same  design. 

The  Principle  of  Balance. 
By  balance  is  meant  the  result  of 
an  arrangement  of  parts  in  a  de- 
sign that  permits  each  part  to  keep 
its  proper  place  without  undue 
emphasis.      Balance    means  the 


-~~»— »—. 


,.  35 

_3 " 

^ 

........-.....^^^Ji 

J ..™-^ 

...         .                               1 

J 

Fig.  38 

f 

^__ 

J 

ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


equalization  of  forces.  Every  work  of  art  is 
made  up  of  certain  elements,  or  parts,  and 
each  element  exercises  upon  the  eye  and  the 
attention  a  certain  attractive  force.  These 
attractions  may  be  of  many  kinds  ;  we  may 
find  in  a  work  of  art  attractions  of  shape, 
attractions  of  value,  attractions  of  color,  at- 
tractions of  line,  attractions  of  technique, 
movement,  interest,  etc.  If  any  one  of 
these  attractions  is  emphasized  too  much, 
the  equalization  or  balance  of  the  whole  is 
destroyed. 

Balance  of  Abstract  Areas.  An  ele- 
mentary form  of  balance  is  seen  in  Fig.  34, 
Here  a  line  divides  a  certain  space  into  two 
areas  exactly  alike  in  size,  shape  and  tone. 
The  attractive  forces  of  these  two  areas  are 
therefore  equal,  and  perfect  balance  results. 
In  Fig.  35  the  two  diameters  of  the  square 
divide  the  space  into  four  areas  that  are 
balanced  against  one  another.  In  Fig.  36 
the  inner  square  balances  the  area  around  it. 
In  Fig,  37  the  corners  and  the  connecting 
spaces  on  the  sides  balance  the  area  within. 
A  prototype  of  a  bookcover  is  shown  in  Fig. 
38,  and  here  balance  is  assisted  by  the  posi- 
tion of  the  smaller  rectangle.  In  Figs.  39 
and  40  balance  is  attained  by  the  sizes  of 
the  two  rectangles  and  by  their  relation  to 
each  other  and  to  the  background.  The 
two  rectangles  appear  as  a  T  shaped  group, 
and  the  eye  takes  them  in  as  a  unit.  Fig. 
41  shows  a  balanced  arrangement  that  is 
the  basis  of  many  rug  designs,  bookcovers, 
door-panels,  etc.      Here  we  have  a  border 


DESICy  237 


within  a  rectangle,  and  balance  results 
from  an  equalization  of  the  forces  exerted 
by  the  border,  the  inner  field  and  the 
outer  margin. 

Applied  Balance.  Fig.  42  shows 
a  design  for  the  doors  of  a  wall  cabinet. 
The  decorative  hinges  and  lock  are  bal- 
anced against  the  quiet  spaces  of  the 
wood.  If  the  hinges  and  lock  were  larger 
they  would  appear  too  prominent ;  if  they  [■ 
were  smaller,  the  doors  would  lack  in- 
terest, unless  this  element  were  supplied 
by  some  other  means,  such  as  the  finish 
of  the  wood,  the  color  or  ornament  of  the 
hinges,  etc.  In  the  desk-pad  (Fig.  43) 
the  decorated  comers  are  balanced  against 
the  quiet  area  of  the  blotter.  We  see 
that  a  comparatively  large  area  of  quiet 
space  is  needed  to  balance  a  comparatively 
small  area  of  ornament.  This  is  mani- 
fested, also,  in  Fig.  44,  where  the  light 
and  dark  shades  of  the  inner  rectangle 
form  a  balanced  group  that  is  in  its  turn 
balanced  against  a  large  space  of  gray 
background.  This  is  why  the  mounting  of 
a  study  adds  so  much  to  its  effectiveness. 

Figs.  45  and  46  show  balanced  ar- 
rangements of  a  motive  chosen  from  the 
buckeye,  or  horse-chestnut.  In  Fig.  45 
straight  lines  only  were  employed  in 
making  a  s)-mmetrical  unit.  (When  a 
motive  is  arranged  in  a  right  and  left 
balance  upon  a  vertical  axis,  symmetry  is 
produced.)  In  Fig.  46  cui-ved  lines  were 
used,   and    the   result    is    somewhat   less 


Fig.  45 

'^^ 

^ 

ART  EDUCATIOX—HIGH  SCHOOL 


From  the  Square  Book  of  Anim.' 
BY  William  Nicholson 


Fig.  49.     Feom  the  Japanese 


conventional.  While  not  symmetrical 
It  is  balanced ;  the  dark  shapes  of  the 
unit  are  in  equilibrium  with  the  light 
spaces  of  the  background.  We  see, 
therefore,  that  balance  is  not  a  question 
of  the  symmetrical  arrangement  of  shapes 
about  a  center  or  upon  an  axis.  Fig.  47 
shows  a  decorative  treatment  of  a  draw- 
mg  from  a  moth  ;  this  is  both  balanced 
and  symmetrical.  It  was  planned  for 
printing  \nth  a  wood-block,  while  the 
tv.'o  arrangements  from  the  horse-chest- 
nut were  designed  for  stencils.  Fig.  48 
is  from  one  of  W'illiam  Nicholson's  draw- 
ings of  animals,  and  shows  a  fine  balance 
of  irregular  shapes.  Obser\-e  how  skil- 
fully the  artist  has  treated  the  large 
mass  of  light  in  making  it  express  the 
drawing  of  the  swan  and  the  motion  of 
the  water.  In  this  balanced  arrange- 
ment, rhythm  is  also  an  important  factor, 
as  e\dnced  in  the  related  movement  of 
the  lines  of  the  water  and  of  the  swan. 
Fig.  49  is  from  the  Japanese.  Here  we 
find,  first  of  all,  a  daring  exposition  of 
the  characteristic  qualities  of  the  turnip. 
The  large  light  mass  formed  by  the  vege- 
table and  its  leaves  is  finely  balanced  by 
the  large  dark  mass  of  the  background. 
The  beauty  of  the  composition  is  further 
enhanced  by  the  ^-igorous  rhythm  of  the 
growth. 

Exercise  XIII.  From  a  motive 
taken  from  the  poppy  leaf,  flower,  bud  or 
seedpod,  make  a  balanced  arrangement 


DESIGN' 


239 


on  a  vertical  axis  of  five  inches. 
Transfer  this  drawing  to  tinted  paper 
and  finish  with  a  dark  wash  of  india- 
ink  or  charcoal- gray. 

Exe7'cise  XIV.  Using  another 
tracing  of  the  same  design,  paint 
the  shapes  with  one  color  on  tinted 
paper,  as  dark  green  on  gray-green 
paper,  blue-green  on  gray-orange 
paper,  etc. 

Exercise  XV.  Finish  another 
tracing  of  the  same  design  in  one 
color  and  gray,  on  bogus  paper. 

Exercise  XJY.  Draw  the  same 
motive  on  squared  paper,  reducing 
all  curves  to  straight  lines,  after  the 
manner  of  Fig.  45.  Transfer  several 
tracings  to  tinted  paper  and  finish 
in  the  different  color  schemes  indi- 
cated in  the  preceding  problems. 

Exercise  XJ^Il.  From  some 
familiar  animal,  such  as  the  duck, 
the  raven,  the  rabbit,  etc.,  make  a 
line  drawing  on  squared  paper  and 
reduce  it  to  a  straight  line  motive. 
Balance  this  on  a  vertical  axis,  for  a 
.tail-piece.  Finish  with  a  dark  wash  j 
of  charcoal-gray.  '  '■ 

Exercise  X  VIII.     Develop  sev-  ^'''-  ^^ 

eral  corner  motives  on  squared  paper,  similar  to  Fig.  43.  Transfer  these  to 
tinted  paper,  and  finish  one  with  gray  wash  ;  another  with  gray  wash  and 
one  color ;  another  in  a  color  scheme  of  two  colors. 

Further  Applications  of  Balance.  Interesting  problems  in  balance 
may  be  worked  out  by  means  of  still-life  objects  arranged  against  a  suitable 
background.     In  Fig.   50,  the  teapot  was  first  sketched  in   outline  and  a 


,240 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  52.     Landscape  by  George  Inness.    From  a  Copley  Print  Published  by  Curtis  &  Cameron 


balance  of  areas  obtained.  This  was  done  by  means  of  a  finder  placed  over 
the  drawing  and  adjusted  until  the  best  effect  was  decided  upon.  (In  a 
composition  of  this  kind  the  rectangle  is  often  drawn  first,  and  the  objects 
or  shapes  are  then  adjusted  to  suit  the  space.  This  is  a  more  difficult 
process  than  obtaining  a  balanced  arrangement  with  a  finder,  although  it  is 
the  method  generally  followed  by  artists,  in  planning  compositions.)  A  bal- 
ance of  values  was  then  considered  and  the  dark  drip  decoration  was  laid 
on  with  charcoal,  the  value  of  the  paper  being  assumed  as  the  general  tone 
of  the  teapot.  The  light  handle,  the  lid  and  the  high-light  were  then  put 
in  with  white  chalk,  and  the  attractive  forces  of  gray,  black  and  white 
seemed  to  balance  one  another  in  the  finished  sketch. 

In  Fig.  5 1  we  see  an  effect  often  observed  when  looking  from  a  boat  at 
a  city  sky-line.  The  details  of  the  tall  buildings,  their  values  and  colors  are 
all  simplified  into  one  dark  mass  that  rises  against  the  sky  and  is  reflected 
in  the  water  beneath.     This  mass  of  dark  with  its  irregular  outline  forms  an 


DESIGN  241 

interesting  pathway  through  the  middle  of  the  rectangular  space,  and  balances 
the  light  pathways  made  by  the  water  and  the  sky.  Such  an  arrangement 
of  masses  is  in  itself  interesting  to  the  painter  whose  knowledge  of  color 
harmonies,  together  with  a  mastery  of  technique,  may  combine  to  make  such 
a  composition  a  creation  of  great  beauty. 

In  Inness's  "Georgia  Pines"  we  have  a  masterly  example  of  the  bal- 
ancing of  large,  simple  masses  against  one  another.  The  group  of  pine  trees 
appears  as  one  mass  in  which  the  main  interest  centers.  Starting  with  this 
group,  the  eye  is  led  by  various  incidents  in  the  foreground  to  the  little 
house  half  hidden  by  bushes  at  the  left,  then  across  the  stretch  of  misty 
distance  to  the  group  of  trees  again,  completing  a  rhythmic  journey  through 
the  various  details  of  the  picture.  If  any  change  were  made  in  the  disposi- 
tion of  these  masses,  such  as  moving  the  group  of  trees  further  to  the  right, 
the  center  of  interest  would  be  disturbed.  As  the  picture  is  now,  there  is  a 
very  evident  balance  of  interests,  and  this  is  no  small  factor  in  the  feeling  of 
unity  and  completeness  that  we  receive  from  the  composition.  In  it  we  find 
an  example  of  various  balances  :  there  is  balance  of  areas,  balance  of  values, 
balance  of  interests  and  balance  of  colors,  although  this  last  we  cannot  see  in 
a  reproduction  that  shows  us  only  the  light  and  dark  values  of  the  colors, 
without  their  rich  hues. 

Exercise  XIX.  On  tinted  paper  make  an  outUne  drawing  in  life-size, 
of  a  two-toned  ginger-jar,  pitcher  or  bowl.  By  the  use  of  the  finder  adjust 
the  drawing  to  its  background,  obtaining  balance.  Let  the  tone  of  the 
paper  represent  the  Hghter  tone  of  the  object,  and  lay  in  the  dark  masses 
with  charcoal,  adding  the  high-lights  with  white  chalk.  Line  in  the  rec- 
tangle and  mount  the  composition  in  the  style  suggested  by  the  color  plates 
in  this  book. 

Exercise  XX.  Repeat  the  preceding  exercise,  using  a  group  of  two 
suitable  objects,  and  adding  a  touch  of  color,  if  either  of  the  objects  suggests 
it.     (See  color-plate  facing  page  33.) 

Exercise  XXI.  Draw  on  water-color  paper  a  rectangle.  Sketch  in  an 
arrangement  of  roofs,  with  their  chimneys,  dormer  windows,  steeples,  etc., 
to  form  an  interesting  sky-line.  Lay  in  the  sky  in  sunset  effects.  Paint 
the  roof  masses  in  gray-violet  tones,  showing  Httle  or  no  detail,  and  obtaining 
a  balance  of  masses.     Cut  out  the  finished  composition  and  mount  it. 


242 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


y    /\ 


Exercise  XXII.  Select  from  a  photograph  of  the  landscape,  or  from 
the  landscape  itself,  an  arrangement  showing  sky,  a  pool  of  water  in  the 
foreground,  distance,  and  trees  rising  against  the  sky.  Balance  these  ele- 
ments in  a  composition  on  tinted  paper,  using  charcoal,  white  chalk  and  a 
touch  of  color,  to  suggest  sunset  clouds.  Fig.  32,  page  23,  suggests  mate- 
rial for  such  a  composition. 

Exercise  XXIII.  Sketch  from  the  pose  the  figure  of  a  child  with  a 
toy  of  some  kind.  The  costume  of  the  child,  and  possibly  the  toy  should 
suggest  a  note  of  color.  Arrange  these  shapes  in  a  balanced  composition, 
and  finish  in  pencil  and  water-color  wash,  as  indicated  in  the  color-plate 
facing  page  22. 

The  Principle  of  Harmony.  By  harmony  is  meant  fitness  to  pur- 
pose ;  consistency  in  character  ;  having  something  in  common  ;  the  unity  of 
all  parts.  Harmony  may  be  expressed  in  shapes  and  areas  ;  by  relating  the 
mode  of  treatment  to  the  thought  to  be  expressed;  in  related  objects;  in 
values  and  in  colors. 

Harmony  in  Shapes  and  Areas.  In  Fig.  53  the  morning-glory  and 
its  leaf  have  been  used  as  alternating  units  in  a  border.  The  units  have 
been  well  spaced,  and  the  line  movement  is  unmistakably  rhythmic ;  yet  in 
looking  at  the  border  as  a  whole,  it  is  evident  that  the  leaf  and  flower  shapes 


DESIGN 


243 


have  been  considered  important,  and  that  the  background  shapes  have  been 
left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The  units  have  evidently  been  laid  against 
a  background  with  no  attempt  of  uniting  their  shapes  with  those  of  the 
background.  In  a  border  of  this  kind  where  realistic  quality  is  not  desirable, 
background  shapes  are  as  important  as  the  units  themselves,  and  should  be 
treated  as  elements  in  the  arrangement.  Compare  Fig.  53  with  Fig.  54.  In 
the  latter  the  units  were  modified  both  in  shape  and  in  position,  so  as  to 
bring  them  into  harmony  with  the  background  shapes. 

In  Figs.  55,  56  and  57  are  shown  three  different  modes  of  treating  a 
motive  from  the  sagittaria,  or  arrow-leaf.  In  Fig.  55  the  naturalistic  growth 
and  appearance  of  the  plant  have  been  retained,  even  to  the  extent  of  show- 
ing modelling,  or  the  effects  of  light  and  shade.  While  this  arrangement  is 
rhythmic  and  balanced,  the  design  is  out  of  harmony  for  two  reasons :  first, 
because  a  naturalistic  treatment  is  inconsistent  with  the  purposes  of  decora- 
tion, and  second,  because  relationships  between  the  shapes  of  the  unit  and 
the  shapes  of  the  background  have  not  been  considered.     In    Fig.    56    a 


244 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


certain  conventional  treatment  has 
been  followed,  and  the  unit  has  be- 
come symmetrical.  Light  and  shade 
effects  are  omitted,  the  design  is 
rhythmic  and  balanced,  but  we  feel 
that  in  this  arrangement  also  it  is  the 
unit  only  which  has  been  considered ; 
the  background  is  still  unrelated.  In 
Fig.  57  we  see  a  decided  improvement. 
Both  elements,  the  unit  and  the  back- 
ground, have  been  brought  into  har- 
monious relationship,  and  there  is  a 
simplicity  and  unity  in  the  result  that 
is  lacking  in  the  two  previous  exam- 
ples. A  finer  rhythm  and  a  better 
balance  are  also  apparent,  and  this,  in 
addition  to  the  closer  agreement  and 
interrelation  between  all  parts  of  the 
design,  makes  it  the  most  harmonious 
and  satisfying  of  the  treatments, 
(/  Mode  of  Treatment.  We  know 
that  drawings  from  nature,  from  ob- 
jects, from  animals  or  from  the  pose 
may  be  treated  in  two  different  ways : 
they  may  be  pictorial  in  their  quality, 
representing  fact,  appearances,  effects 
of  light  and  shade,  etc.,  or  they  may 
be  decorative.  By  decorative  treat- 
ment is  meant  a  general  simplification 
of  shapes,  values,  colors  and  other 
details.  Natural  irregularities  in  out- 
lines are  omitted,  the  simplified  out- 
lines are  emphasized,  and  values  and 
colors  are  rendered  flat.  It  is  a  law 
of    design  that  pictorial  effects  shall 


DESIGN 


245 


not  be  used  in  the  decoration 
of  objects.  If  we  desire  a  pict- 
ure, there  are  certain  principles 
of  pictorial  composition  which 
we  must  observe,  as  has  al- 
ready been  explained.  If  we 
desire  a  decoration,  the  mode 
of  treatment  of  that  decoration 
must  not  be  pictorial.  In  Fig. 
58  we  see  an  example  of  real- 
istic treatment  imposed  upon  a 
piece  of  pottery.  The  grapes 
are  modelled  in  high  relief,  the 
stems  are  twisted  into  handles, 
and  the  leaf  imitates  the  undu-  , 
lating  surface  of  the  natural 
growth.  The  vase  stands  as 
an  example  of  the  violation  of 
the  law  of  harmony,  in  contrast 
to  the  beautiful  examples  shown 
on  page  230. 

Fig.  59  shows  a  style  of 
decoration  that  is  often  seen 
upon  china  and  porcelain.  In 
this  example  the  form  and  pro- 
portion of  the  cup  are  excellent, 
the  handle  is  well  constructed, 
the  clover  blossoms  and  the 
bee  are  well  painted;  yet  the 
cup  as  it  stands  is  not  artistic 
because  the  mode  of  treatment 
of  the  decoration  violates  har- 
mony. We  should  not  seek  to 
represent  on  a  tea-cup  a  picture 
of  a  flower  or  insect.     We  may 


Fig.  61 


246  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


I, 


^_,.,  l.lililHIIIIll        ^^  .■...■'-,.•""'  n^tmmm^mmm* 


-^, 


Fig.  62.    Sixteenth  Century  Chest 

take  the  shapes  suggested  by  these  natural  growths  and  adapt  them  to  legit- 
imate decorative  use,  as  shown  in  Figs.  60  and  61,  In  Fig.  60  the  width  of 
the  border,  its  relation  to  the  spaces  of  the  cup,  the  placing  of  the  units  and 
the  flat  treatment  of  values  were  all  carefully  planned  by  the  designer.  In 
Fig.  61  the  flower,  leaf  and  stem  shapes  were  related  to  one  another  and  to  the 
background  shapes.  Both  of  these  examples  show  harmony  because  there 
is  unity  between  the  decoration  and  the  object  upon  which  the  decoration  is 
placed. 

In  the  carved  chest  shown  in  Fig.  62  we  see  an  example  of  harmony 
between  all  parts  of  the  constructed  object.  The  chest  has  an  atmosphere 
of  simple,  unpretentious  dignity,  chiefly  because  of  its  fine  proportions  and 
of  the  treatment  of  its  structural  lines.  Balance  is  apparent  between  the 
three  locks  of  ornamented  metal  and  the  quiet  spaces  of  wood  surrounding 
them,  and  these  elements  are  in  their  turn  balanced  by  a  base  of  appropriate 


DESIGN  247 

weight  and  solidity.  In  the  base,  the  ornament  is  carved  in  low  relief,  and 
its  motive  follows  the  structural  lines  in  a  Avell  thought  out  and  rhythniic 
arrangement.  Observe  that  the  ornament  is  kept  subordinate  to  the  main 
idea  —  the  idea  of  the  chest  —  and  does  not  obtrude  itself  upon  the  atten- 
tion, as  does  the  realistic  ornament  of  the  vase  (Fig.  58).  This  chest  dates 
from  the  sixteenth  century  and  is  to-day  considered  a  fine  type  of  good  con- 
struction, appropriately  ornamented. 

Harmony  in  Related  Objects.  Any  study  of  art  principles  that  does 
not  help  us  to  solve  the  every  day  problems  of  house  furnishing  and 
dress,  and  that  does  not  develop  discriminatmg  judgment  in  all  matters  con- 
nected with  arrangements  of  objects,  values  or  colors,  fails  to  attain  its  most 
important  end.  In  rare  instances  "good  taste  "  is  instinctive  or  inherited,  but 
it  is  seldom  that  a  person  so  endowed  can  give  reasons  for  his  choice  of 
certain  combinations  of  objects  or  colors.  The  statement  that  a  particular 
arrangement  looks  well,  and  for  that  reason  is  chosen,  is  an  unsatisfactory 
answer.  We  should  know  ivhy  certain  combinations  are  more  harmonious 
than  others.  By  the  study  of  art  principles  we  learn  to  appreciate  the 
beauty  of  fine  proportions,  the  power  of  line,  the  value  of  masses,  the  im- 
portance of  color  adjustments.  We  learn  that  these  qualities  are  not  re- 
stricted to  paintings  and  the  fine  arts  generally,  but  may  be  applied  as  tests 
in  many  practical  problems.  The  arrangement  of  a  room  is  one  of  these, 
and  the  principles  explained  in  this  chapter  may  be  used  as  standards  to 
measure  the  artistic  merit  of  such  a  design.  Figs.  63  and  64  show  the  same 
room  under  two  different  treatments.  In  Fig.  63  the  ceiling,  the  walls  and 
the  carpet  show  trailing  sprays  of  flowers  and  leaves  in  naturalistic  treatment. 
If  we  furnish  our  room  in  obedience  to  the  principle  of  harmony  we  shall 
look  to  ceiling,  walls  and  floor  for  our  large,  quiet  spaces,  against  which  the 
furniture,  pictures  and  objects  of  ornament  are  balanced.  It  is  of  first  im- 
portance, then,  that  in  a  problem  of  room  furnishing,  the  walls,  ceiling  and 
floor  spaces  are  brought  into  harmonious  relationship.  A  wall  should  be  flat 
and  quiet  in  effect ;  flat  because  of  the  nature  of  its  construction,  and  quiet 
because  it  must  serve  as  a  background  for  the  furnishings  of  a  room.  A 
carpet  in  its  design  should  suggest  nothing  that  detracts  from  the  idea  of 
service.  It  is  to  be  walked  on,  and  a  realistic  treatment  of  flowers,  animals 
or  landscapes  is  manifestly  out  of  place  here.     In  Fig.  63,  the  tables,  the 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  63.     A  Violation  of  Harmony 


sofa  and  the  chair  are  elaborately  carved  with  figures  that  seek  to  disguise 
the  structural  elements.  The  frame  of  the  mirror,  the  clock  and  the  orna- 
ments upon  the  mantel-shelf  are  characterized  by  meaningless  lines  and 
showy  decorations.  There  is  nothing  in  this  room  that  creates  an  atmos- 
phere of  quietness  and  repose.  We  feel,  it  is  true,  that  there  has  been  a 
desire  to  make  things  beautiful,  but  when  we  contrast  this  interior  with  the 
simple  quiet  comfort  of  the  room  shown  in  Fig.  64  —  the  same  room  under 
different  treatment  —  w^e  see  the  value  of  trained  judgment,  and  we 
recognize  the  power  of  right  selection. 

In  matters  of  dress  or  personal  attire  we  are  controlled  very  largely  by 
custom  or  fashion ;  yet  a  knowledge  of  these  principles  of  rhythm,  balance 
and  harmony  may  be  used  as  a  guide  in  our  choice  of  attire  that  is  suitable, 
becoming  and  artistic.  We  know  that  fitness  to  purpose  must  be  considered 
when  choosing  a  costume  for  business.  There  are  certain  styles  of  garments 
that  would  be  appropriate  in  one  case,  but  utterly  out  of  place  in  another. 


249 


Fig.  64.    The  Same  Boom,  in  Harmony 

But  beside  this  question  of  fitness  or  consistency  are  the  questions  of  line, 
value  and  color, —  questions  that  should  be  considered  in  the  choosing  of  a 
costume  as  well  as  in  the  painting  of  a  picture.  In  some  famous  portraits, 
such  as  that  by  John  S.  Sargent,  in  Fig.  65,  the  artist  has  arranged  the 
sitter  in  such  a  way  as  to  emphasize  a  rhythmic  quality  in  the  composition. 
The  attitude  of  the  pose,  the  placing  of  the  hand,  the  adjustment  of  the 
drapery,  the  selection  of  the  hat,  all  combine  to  make  a  system  of  rhythmic 
lines,  a  balancing  of  masses,  and  a  harmony  of  color.  Although  a  hat  of 
the  pattern  shown  in  the  picture  may  not  follow  the  fashion  of  the  day,  its 
artistic  merit  cannot  be  questioned.  It  is  true  that  we  will  not  find  it  wise 
to  depart  too  far  from  the  prevailing  custom,  yet  we  should  insist  on  some 
consideration  of  artistic  qualities  in  the  designing  of  articles  of  dress. 

Harmony  in  Values  and  Colors.  Harmony  is  manifested  in  color 
combinations  more  directly  than  in  any  other  way.  Everything  in  the 
world  about  us  has  color  of  some  kind.     It  is  by  means  of  color  that  we 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


distinguish  one  object  from 
another.  We  may  study  color 
theoretically  by  experiment 
with  light,  and  we  may  study  it 
practically  by  means  of  paint  or 
pigment.  If  we  place  a  glass 
prism  in  the  sun  so  that  a  ray 
of  light  passing  through  the 
prism  is  thrown  on  a  white 
or  black  surface,  we  shall  see 
upon  that  surface  the  rainbow 
series  of  colors.  These  colors, 
red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue 
and  violet,  appear  in  the  order 
named  and  are  called  the 
spectrum  colors.  Each  color 
at  its  greatest  strength  or 
mtensity  is  called  the  standard, 
and  these  standards  together 
with  the  intermediate  colors 
seen  between  them  we  try  to 
represent  in  the  Color  Chart  A. 
We  find  that  three  of  the  six 
standard  colors  are  the  basis  for 
all  other  colors.  These  three, 
red,  yellow  and  blue,  we  call  primary  colors,  because  they  cannot  be  produced 
by  mixture.  Whatever  primary  color  is  selected,  the  remaining  two  pri- 
maries mixed  together  form  its  complement.  For  example,  if  we  select  the 
primary  red,  we  find  that  a  combination  of  the  remaining  two  primaries  forms 
the  complement  of  red,  which  is  green ;  if  the  primary  blue  is  selected,  its 
complement  is  orange  ;  if  yellow,  its  complement  is  violet. 

Color  may  be  either  warm  or  cold  in  quahty.  The  coldest  color  is  blue, 
and  its  complement,  orange,  is  the  warmest  color.  Every  color  adjusts  itself 
in  this  way  to  its  complement ;  if  a  primary  is  cold,  its  complement  is  w^arm ; 
if  a  primary  is  warm,  its  complement  is  cold. 


Fig.  65.  Portrait  by  John  S.  Sargent 


TEXT  BOOKS  OF  ART  EDUCATION 
Y  W 


^  hl!         \ 


CHART- A 


LL 
M 

HD 
D 

LD 


HL 

L 
.LL 

M 
HD 

D 
LD 


CHART  -  C 


Y  m 

Yo| 

0 

RO 
R 


RV 


NEUTRAL   VALUE 
SCALE. 


W 

HL 

L  I 
LL 
M 


FULL 
INTENSITY 


HALF 
INTENSITY 


IHD 
D 
LD 


•    HALF  FULL 

B    INTENSITY  INTENSITY 


CHART- B 


252  ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 

Color  Properties.  The  three  properties  of  color  are  hue,  value  and 
intensity  or  chroma. 

Hue  is  that  property  which  distinguishes  one  color  from  another,  and 
gives  it  individuality  and  identity.  For  example  :  If,  when  yellow  and  red 
water-color  are  combined,  the  mixture  inclines  more  to  the  red  than  it  does 
to  the  yellow,  a  hue  of  red  is  formed ;  if  it  inclines  more  to  the  yellow,  a  hue 
of  yellow  is  formed,  etc. 

Value  has  already  been  defined  as  the  degree  of  light  or  dark  expressed 
by  a  color.  Although  the  Value  Scale  is  made  in  neutral  grays,  it  must  not 
be  assumed  that  value  can  be  expressed  only  in  gray  tones.  Every  color  has 
value  and  could  be  related  to  a  value  scale  that  showed  a  sufficient  number 
of  degrees  of  light  and  dark.  For  example,  the  colors  of  Chart  A  are 
arranged  in  Chart  B  so  as  to  show  this  relation.  Yellow  appears  as  High 
Light,  yellow-orange  and  yellow-green  appear  as  Light,  orange  and  green  as 
Low  Light,  red-orange  and  blue-green  as  Middle,  etc.  We  can  thus  name 
the  color  values. 

Any  value  of  a  standard  color  that  is  lighter  than  the  standard  is  a  tint 
of  that  color ;  any  value  that  is  darker  than  the  standard  is  a  shade.  Chart 
C  shows  the  standards  of  yellow,  red,  green  and  blue,  with  tints  and  shades 
of  red,  green  and  blue,  and  shades  of  yellow,  all  related  to  the  Value  Scale. 
The  tints  of  yellow  cannot  be  related  to  the  value  scale  in  Chart  C,  because 
the  standard  yellow  appears  at  High  Light,  and  the  tints  of  yellow  would  lie 
between  High  Light  and  White.  These  degrees  are  not  shown  in  the  scale 
commonly  used. 

Exercise  XXIV.  With  water- color  paint,  arrange  a  scale  from  light  to 
dark  of  standard  red,  or  any  other  spectrum  color.  Plan  to  show  five  values, 
arranging  five  rectangles  in  a  vertical  row.  In  the  middle  rectangle,  place  a 
wash  of  the  full  strength  or  standard  of  the  color.  Add  a  little  water  to  this 
for  the  wash  to  be  placed  in  the  rectangle  directly  above,  and  still  more  water 
for  the  first  rectangle.  Add  black  or  charcoal-gray  paint  to  the  standard 
color  for  the  shades. 

Color  Intensity  or  Chroma.  By  the  intensity  or  chroma  of  a  color 
we  mean  the  degree  of  its  removal  from  absolute  neutrality  or  grayness. 
The  colors  of  the  spectrum  represented  in  Chart  A  are  in  full  intensity. 
In  Chart  B  the  colors  of  the  circle  have  been  placed  on  each  side  of  the  scale 


of  neutral  values,  six  colors  in  full  intensity  appearing  on  the  extreme  left, 
and  six  on  the  extreme  right.  Between  these  scales  of  full  intensities  and 
the  scale  of  neutral  values  are  two  scales  of  grayed  color,  called  scales  of  color 
in  half  intensity.  This  means  that  the  colors  in  these  scales  are  grayed  or 
subdued  to  about  half  their  full  strength.  Scales  in  quarter  intensity,  in 
eighth  intensity  or  in  three-quarter  intensity  could  be  produced  by  varying 
the  quantity  of  gray  added  to  colors  in  full  intensity. 

The  addition  of  a  complement  to  its  color  will  gray  it,  producing  a  less 
intensity  of  that  color,  according  to  the  quantity  of  the  complement  used. 
This  can  be  demonstrated  in  the  following  exercises  :  — 

Exercise  XXV.  Make  a  horizontal  row  of  five  two-inch  squares, 
arranging  them  at  equal  distances.  In  the  square  at  the  left  place  a  wash 
of  a  primary  color  in  full  intensity,  as  red.  In  the  square  at  the  right  place 
a  wash  of  its  complement  in  full  intensity,  as  green.  Mix  equal  quantities 
of  the  primary  and  its  complement,  producing  Middle  Gray.  Place  a  wash 
of  this  in  the  middle  square.  Mix  Middle  Gray  and  the  primary  color.  It 
will  make  a  tone  of  the  primary  in  half  intensity.  Place  a  wash  of  this  in 
the  square  between  Middle  Gray  and  the  primary.  Mix  the  complement  and 
the  Middle  Gray,  making  a  tone  of  the  complement  in  half  intensity.  Place 
this  in  the  remaining  square.  You  now  have  a  scale  or  gradation  of  color 
from  a  primary  through  neutral  gray  to  the  complement  of  the  primary. 

We  see  that  color  may  be  estimated  as  to  its  hue,  as  to  its  value,  and  as 
to  its  intensity.  In  naming  or  locating  a  color,  therefore,  it  is  necessary  to 
indicate  these  three  qualities  in  order  to  establish  a  definite  idea  of  what  is 
meant.  By  the  use  of  symbols  we  can  write  color  in  much  the  same  way 
that  we  write  music.  If,  in  Fig.  66,  for  example,  we  were  told  to  fill  the 
rectangle  simply  with  a  wash  of  red,  we  would  not  know  what  value  nor  what 
intensity  of  red  was  meant,  for  red  has  many  degrees  of  light  and  dark  and 
many  degrees  of  brightness.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  that  after  stating  the 
required  color  or  hue  in  a  formula,  we  state  also  its  value  and  its  intensity. 
For  the  sake  of  acquaintance  with  color  terms,  the  formulas  in  Figs.  66,  6"] 
and  68  are  written  out  in  full.  After  some  experience  abbreviations  may  be 
used.  When  no  value  of  a  color  is  named,  the  standard  or  spectrum  value 
is  understood. 

Exercise   XXVI.      Draw    a    series    of    three    horizontal    oblongs,    a 


254 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


RED  — HIGH    DARK 
FULL    INTENSITY 


RED 
HIOH     DARK 
FULL       IN- 
TENSITY 


GRAY 

HIGH    DARK 


RED-HIGH    DARK 
ONE-HALF    INTENSITY 


'RED 
Hl&HDAnK 
FULL    IM- 
TENSITY 


GRAY 
HIGH     DARK 


RED  — HIGH     DARK 
ONE-FOURTH    INTENSITY 


quarter-inch  apart,  each  oblong  measuring  2\\>y 
\\  inches.  Divide  the  second  and  third  oblongs 
as  indicated  in  Figs.  Gj  and  6'^.  (In  Fig.  6^,  the 
space  marked  "red"  is  one  fourth  the  width.) 
Fill  the  first  oblong  with  a  wash  of  red,  High 
Dark,  full  intensity.  (See  Chart  B,  page  251.) 
In  the  second  oblong,  place  the  same  wash  in 
the  space  corresponding  to  the  space  marked  red 
in  Fig.  Gj.  Fill  the  space  corresponding  to  that 
marked  gray,  High  Dark,  with  a  wash  of  char- 
coal-gray in  High  Dark  value,  the  value  of  red  at 
full  intensity.  (See  Value  Scale,  page  233.) 
Mix  equal  quantities  of  these  two  washes,  ob- 
taining a  wash  of  gray-red,  or  red.  High  Dark, 
one-half  intensity.  Place  this  in  the  space  corre- 
sponding to  the  lower  half  of  Fig.  6^ .  In  the 
third  oblong  carry  out  the  formula  as  indicated. 
You  will  have  made  three  intensities  of  red,  in 
^^^'  ^  High  Dark  value.    Observe  that  the  grayest  color 

has  the  smallest  fraction  of  intensity.     Write  under  each  intensity  its  name, 
or  degree. 

Color  Schemes.  The  color  chart  as  it  stands  is  useful  as  an  aid  to  a 
scientific  knowledge  of  color  and  to  the  understanding  of  theories  about  color. 
In  a  scientific  sense  it  is  a  complete  color  harmony,  for  in  it  we  find  the  ele- 
ments of  all  color.  In  an  artistic  sense,  it  may  more  properly  be  called  a 
color  rhythm,  for  here,  starting  with  any  color,  we  may  pass  by  related  steps 
around  the  circle  to  the  starting  point  again.  Although  the  development  of 
the  color  sense  and  of  taste  in  the  use  of  color,  results  from  experience  and 
from  trained  judgment,  there  are  certain  color  schemes  developed  by  a  study 
of  the  color  chart  that  may  be  relied  upon  as  resulting  in  harmonious  effects. 
The  simplest  of  these  schemes  are  those  known  as  monochromatic,  com- 
plementary and  analogous,  and  the  scheme  of  dominant  harmony. 

Monochromatic  Color  Schemes.  A  monochromatic  color  scheme 
is  a  group  of  different  tones  of  one  color.  It  may  be  different  values  of  a 
color  or  different  intensities  of  a  color. 


■Jil  J'>  'U,- 


DESIGJV 


255 


mmm. 


Exercise  XXJYL  Make  a  monochromatic  color 
scheme  consisting  of  five  values  of  green,  starting  at 
Light.  (See  Chart  C,  page  251.)  Arrange  the  scheme 
in  oblongs,  placed  in  a  vertical  row.  (See  Figs.  71  to 
75.) 

Note.  In  preparing  washes  of  color  for  scaling,  it  is  best  to  wash 
the  desired  tone  over  a  piece  of  paper  larger  than  the  shape  desired 
for  that  part  of  the  scale  (Fig.  69).  Then  place  over  this  wash  a 
finder  of  the  required  size  and  shape,  moving  it  about  until  an  even 
tone  is  found  (Fig.  70).  Mark  this  shape  and  cut  it  out.  Prepare 
the  other  tones  of  the  scale  in  the  same  way,  and  mount  the  scheme 
on  light  gray  paper. 

Exercise  XXVIII.  Draw  on  white  paper  an  en- 
larged copy  of  the  surface  pattern  shown  in  Fig.  57. 
Fill  in  these  shapes  with  three  steps  taken  from  the 
monochromatic  color  scheme  made  in  the  preceding 
exercise. 

Complementary  Color  Schemes.  Complemen- 
tary colors  show  strong  contrast  and  possess  the  quality 
of  enriching  or  emphasizing  each  other.  Color  Chart 
A,  page  251,  is  arranged  to  show,  at  opposite  ends  of 
the  six  diameters,  the  colors  that  are  complementary  to 
each  other;  violet  appears  opposite  yellow,  blue- violet 
opposite  yellow-orange,  blue  opposite  orange,  blue-green 
opposite  red-orange,  green  opposite  red,  and  yellow- 
green  opposite  red-violet.  Two  complementary  colors 
at  full  intensity  balance  each  other,  but  they  do  not 


GREEN 
LIGHT-  L 


GREEN 
LOW-LIGHT-LL 


Fig.  72 


GREEN 
MIDDLE  -  M 


GREEN 
HIGH-DARK-HD 


GREEN 
DARK  -  D 


256 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


RED 


G  REEN 


NEUTRAL    GRAY 


RED 


GREE^4 


GRAY  GREEN 
y4      INTENSITY 


RED 


GREEN 


GRAY     GREEN 
Vs.       INTENSITY 


RED 


GREEN 


GRAY    RED 

y4      INTENSITY 


RED 


GREEN 


GRAY    RED 
^2       INTENSITY 


form  a  harmony,  and  they  are  seldom  em- 
ployed as  color  schemes.  There  must  enter 
into  each  member  of  a  complemeatary  pair 
some  unifying  element.  To  form  a  harmony, 
they  must  possess  something  in  common.  This 
unifying  or  harmonizing  element  can  be  sup- 
plied by  mixing  gray  with  both  colors,  or  by 
mixing  a  little  of  one  with  the  other.  For  ex- 
ample, a  little  red  added  to  green  and  a  little 
green  added  to  red  will  soften  the  extreme 
contrast  of  red  and  green  as  they  are  seen  in 
the  Color  Chart,  and  the  grayed  red  and  green 
that  result  will  form  a  harmony.  Some  inter- 
esting color  schemes  may  be  worked  out  on  this  / 
basis,  as  indicated  in  the  following  exercises  :  — V 

Exercise  XXIX.  Draw  a  rectangle  about 
2\  inches  wide  and  i^  inches  high,  and  divide 
it  as  indicated  in  Fig.  j^.  Fill  the  space  cor- 
responding to  the  space  marked  "red"  with  a 
wash  of  red  in  full  strength,  and  the  space 
corresponding  to  that  marked  "green"  with  a 
wash  of  green  in  full  strength.  Mix  equal 
quantities  of  these  washes,  producing  neutral 
gray.  Place  this  wash  in  the  lower  half  of  the 
rectangle. 

Exercise  XXX.  Draw  a  rectangle  and 
divide  it  as  indicated  in  Fig.  yy.  Notice  that 
the  space  for  red  is  smaller  than  in  Fig.  76, 
and  the  space  for  green  is  larger.  Spread  the 
washes  in  full  strength  in  the  corresponding 
spaces  of  your  diagram.  Mix  the  two  colors, 
not  in  equal  quantities,  but  in  the  proportions 
indicated  by  the  spaces  just  filled.  This 
mixture  will  produce  a  gray-green,  or  green  of 
about  one-fourth  intensity. 


DESIGN 


257 


Exercise  XXXI.  Draw  a  rectangle  and 
divide  it  as  in  Fig.  'j^.  Notice  that  the  space 
for  red  is  still  smaller  in  this  diagram,  and  the 
space  for  green  larger.  Fill  the  corresponding 
spaces  as  before.  Mix  the  two  washes  in  the 
proportions  indicated.  The  result  will  be  a 
greener  gray  than  that  produced  in  the  last 
exercise,  or  green  of  about  one-half  intensity. 

Exercise  XXXII.  Draw  a  rectangle  and 
divide  it  as  in  Fig.  79.  Here,  the  space  for 
red  is  larger  and  the  space  for  green  smaller. 
Place  the  washes  as  before.  Mix  them  in  the 
proportions  indicated.  The  result  will  be  a 
gray  that  inclines  toward  red,  or  red  of  about 
one-fourth  intensity. 

Exercise  XXXIII.  Draw  a  rectangle  and 
divide  it  as  in  Fig.  80.  Paint  in  the  red  and 
green  washes  as  indicated,  and  mix  them  in  the 
given  proportions.  The  result  will  be  a  redder 
gray  than  that  produced  by  the  proportions 
given  in  Fig.  79,  or  red  of  about  one-half 
■  intensity. 

Note.  After  working  out  the  above  problems  it  will 
be  seen  that  when  two  complenientaries  are  used  in  equal 
quantities  of  their  full  strength  a  neutral  gray  is  produced. 
When  the  quantities  are  not  equal,  the  resultant  gray  will 
assume  the  hue  of  the  larger  quantity. 

Exercise  XXXIV.  Draw  rectangles  and 
divide  them  as  indicated  in  Figs.  81,  82,  83,  84 
and  85.  Fill  them  with  the  complementaries 
yellow  and  violet,  using  the  proportions  indi- 
cated in  the  diagrams.  The  results  will  form 
a  number  of  interesting  and  usable  color 
schemes. 

Note.  The  hues,  values  and  intensities  of  these  com- 
binations will  be  influenced  by  the  quality  of  the  paint  used. 


YELLOW-Y       VIOLET-V 


NEUTRAL  GRAY 


YELLOW 


VIOLET 


GRAY   VIOLET 
VV      INTENSITY 


YELLOW 


VIOLET 


GRAY  Violet 

Vz      INTENSITY 


YELLOW 


VIOLET 


GRAY    YELLOW 
y4       INTENSITY 


YELLOW  VIOLET 


GRAY  YELLOW 
y-z.      INTENSITY 


258  A  R  T  ED  UCA  TION  —  HIGH  SCHO  OL 

Different   makes    of   paints  will    produce   different   effects,   so   tliat  uniform    results  cannot  be 
attained.     This  is  not  necessary,  however,  nor  does  it  in  any  way  affect  the  truth  of  the  theory. 

Exercise  XXXV.  Make  a  tracing  of  the  surface  pattern  shown  in  the 
color  plate  facing  page  252.  Transfer  it  to  tinted  paper.  Fill  in  the 
shapes  with  a  color  scheme  chosen  from  the  diagrams  worked  out  in 
Exercise  XXXIV. 

Exercise  XXXVI.  From  a  flower  motive,  such  as  the  nasturtium  or 
geranium,  arrange  a  border  similar  in  character  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  54. 
Transfer  it  to  tinted  paper,  and  fill  in  the  shapes  with  a  complementary 
color  scheme,  made  from  combinations  of  blue  and  orange. 

The  border  design  on  the  color  plate  facing  page  252  is  an  example 
of  the  use  of  grayed  complementary  colors. 

Analogous  Color  Schemes.  Analogous  colors  are  those  which  are 
adjacent  or  neighboring  in  the  color  circle.  For  example,  red,  red-violet 
and  violet  form  one  group  of  analogous  colors,  and  yellow,  yellow-green  and 
green  form  another.  Several  such  color  schemes  can  be  selected  from  the 
circle.  (See  Chart  A,  page  251.)  These  analogous  or  related  colors  form 
a  color  rhythm,  and  are  also  harmonious,  because  they  possess,  in  different 
quantities,  a  common  element.  For  example,  blue  is  the  common  element 
contained  in  the  analogous  colors  blue-green,  blue,  blue-violet  and  violet,  and, 
though  these  colors  make  a  harmony,  even  in  full  intensity,  they  are  seldom 
used  without  being  further  united  by  a  second  common  factor  of  gray. 
Analogous  color  schemes  of  grayed  intensities  may  be  used  without  fear  of 
violating  any  principles  of  color  harmony. 

Exercise  XXX  VI I.  Draw  three  rectangles  and  arrange  them  as  indi- 
cated in  Fig.  86.  Place  in  the  first  rectangle  a  wash  of  yellow-green.  Light 
Value,  one-half  intensity  (YG,  L,  -^) ;  in  the  second,  place  a  wash  of  green. 
Low  Light,  one-half  intensity  (G,  LL,  V) ;  in  the  third,  place  a  wash  of  blue- 
green,  Middle,  one-half  intensity  (BG,  M,  J).  (These  colors  can  be  found  in 
Color  Chart  B.) 

Exercise  XXXVIII.  Enlarge  the  design  given  in  Fig.  87.  Trace  it 
on  Japanese  paper.  Fill  in  the  shapes  with  washes  of  the  color  scheme 
found  in  the  preceding  problem. 

Exercise  XXXIX.  Make  another  tracing  of  the  same  design.  Use 
in  this  exercise  the  same  color  scheme,  changing  the  values  of  the  colors. 


DESIGN 


YELLOW-GREEN 
1/2      1NTEN5ITY 


GREEN 


1/, 


Z     INTENSITY 


BLUE  -GREEN 
%      INTENSITY 


For  example,  yellow  may  be  used  at  High  Light,  green  at  Middle,  and  blue- 
green  at  Low  Dark.     Note  the  difference  in  effect  in  the  two  exercises. 

Dominant  Harmony.  A  dominant  harmony  is  formed  when  a  group 
of  colors  is  enveloped  or  influenced  by  some  one  color.  When,  for  instance, 
we  look  at  the  landscape  through  the  mists  of  morning,  we  see  different 
color  effects,  according  to  the  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  resulting 
color  of  the  air.  (See  "Color  Quality,"  Pictorial  Representation,  pages  10 
and  II.)  This  enveloping  mist  enters  into  or  qualifies  every  local  color 
seen,  and  a  dominant  harmony  is  formed.  The  color  plate  facing  page  256 
illustrates  this.  Here  the  same  landscape  is  represented  under  four  different 
atmospheric  conditions.  In  the  upper  left  sketch  the  dominant  color  is 
pearly  gray,  and  this  grays  the  color  of  the  sky,  the  water,  the  grass,  the 
trees  and  the  distance.  In  the  upper  right  sketch  gray-violet  seems  to  be 
the  dominant  color,  and  another  and  quite  different  effect  is  seen.  In  the 
lower  left  sketch  the  dominant  color  is  gray-yellow,  and  in  the  lower  right  it 
is  gray -orange.  By  comparing  these  four  sketches,  we  see  that  in  each  one 
harmony  has  been  attained  by  the  all-pervading,  all-enveloping  color  of  the 
atmosphere.  The  ever-changing  aspect  of  nature  is  what  makes  the  study  of 
landscape  of  so  much  interest.     We  learn  how  different  a  familiar  landscape 


260  ART  ED UCA  TION—  HIGH  SCHO OL 

may  appear,  when  seen  through  the  atmospheres  of  winter,  summer,  autumi 
and  spring,  or  under  the  effect  of  noonday,  of  twihght,  of  moonhght  or  o 
dawn.  Painters  recognize  this  charm  in  landscape,  and  try  to  represen 
effects  as  they  see  them.  Claude  Monet,  a  French  artist  of  note,  has  mad( 
himself  famous  by  the  masterly  way  in  which  he  has  portrayed  this  principL 
of  dominant  harmony.  Some  years  ago  he  painted  the  same  landscap( 
under  twelve  different  atmospheric  conditions. 

The  use  of  dominant  harmony  is  not  confined  to  landscape  paintings 
but  is  apparent  in  the  general  work  of  many  artists.  In  the  famous  "  Nigh 
Watch,"  by  Rembrandt,  a  golden  glow  seems  to  permeate  every  object  ii 
the  painting,  affecting  the  color  of  the  armor,  the  texture  of  velvet,  satin  anc 
silk,  and  the  mysterious  depth  of  the  room  beyond. 

A  color  scheme  or  composition  that  presents  red,  yellow  and  blue  ii 
some  form  is  of  a  higher  order  than  one  in  which  any  one  of  the  primarie: 
is  lacking.  For  instance,  monochromatic  .and  analogous  color  schemes  an 
agreeable  and  effective  when  properly  used,  but  the  most  complete  harmonic! 
are  formed  when  all  the  color  elements  are  present. 

In  working  out  color  schemes,  dominant  harmony  is  recognized,  and  i; 
very  generally  used,  as,  for  example,  in  planning  a  room  interior,  a  costume 
or  the  color  scheme  of  a  church  or  theatre. 

Exercise  XL.  Draw  three  horizontal  rectangles,  each  measuring  abou' 
2j  X  i|  inches,  and  arrange  them  in  a  vertical  row.  Prepare  washes  of  red 
yellow  and  blue  in  full  intensity.  Modify  each  of  these  with  the  same  mixt 
ure  of  gray-violet.  Spread  these  three  modified  washes  in  the  rectangles 
prepared.  This  will  give  you  three  colors  so  related  or  harmonized  as  t( 
form  a  safe  color  scheme  for  a  design. 

Note.     Gray-violet  can  be  made  by  mixing  blue,  red  and  black.     A  scheme  such  as  tht 
above  can  be  varied  by  changing  the  value  of  the  dominating  color. 

Exercise  XLI.  Make  another  color  scheme  in  dominant  harmony 
using  orange,  green  and  violet,  modifying  these  washes  by  a  gray-violel 
mixture.     Spread  in  rectangles  as  before. 

Exercise  XLII.  Design  a  straight  line  surface  pattern  similar  tc 
Fig.  87,  and  make  two  tracings  of  it  on  Japanese  paper.  In  one  tracing 
fill  in  the  shapes  with  the  color  scheme  found  in  Exercise  XL.  In  the 
other,  fill  the  shapes  with  the  color  scheme  foimd  in  Exercise  XLI. 


^^"^          w 

/ 

'^5S 

te^ 

^..-.r^ 

«,^ 

'     1^  ^  ' 

;./ 

^ 

■^  -1 

-   '    . 

, 

-A 

"V 

■■  .^ 

^ 
"P 

.^- 

1-*^^*^ 

L     1       i       HUPH 

A  COLOR 

SOURCE  FROM  TiATURE 

SILK  -  SICILY  -  MIDDLL  Sn    CCAT. 


rra 


□ 


DESIGN  261 

Other  Color  Sources.  When  a  color  scheme  is  desired  for  use  in 
decoration,  we  may  turn  for  suggestions  to  three  different  color  sources : 
By  our  knowledge  of  the  color  chart  and  of  color  relationships  we  can  work 
out  color  harmonies,  as  has  been  explained  in  the  last  few  pages ;  we  can  go 
to  nature,  and  find  there  harmonious  color  combinations  in  infinite  variety  ; 
and  we  can  turn  for  suggestion  to  the  artistic  products  of  the  past.  On  the 
color  plate  facing  this  page  are  illustrations  of  two  of  these  color  sources. 
The  upper  sketch  is  from  a  piece  of  rock  picked  up  on  a  New  England  hill- 
side, and  upon  its  roughened  surface  the  lichens  had  made  a  delicate  tracery. 
The  color  of  the  rock  was  in  tones  of  gray-violet,  and  the  lichens  showed 
several  values  of  gray-green.  These  colors  are  shown  in  a  scale  under  the 
sketch.  It  is  an  interesting  task  to  search  for  such  color  schemes,  and  to 
attempt  to  scale  them.  A  note-book  might  be  filled  with  color  schemes 
taken  from  flowers,  weeds,  autumn  leaves,  the  bark  of  trees,  the  plumage  of 
birds,  from  shells  and  minerals  and  many  other  sources,  making  a  collection 
of  valuable  material  for  use  in  design.  The  surface  pattern  on  the  color 
plate  facing  page  252  shows  a  design  from  the  spiderwort.  Both  the  shapes 
used  and  the  colors  that  filled  them  are  taken  from  this  interesting  plant. 

In  museums  and  in  other  collections  of  artistic  products  we  may  find 
beautiful  examples  of  color  harmonies.  The  lower  sketch  on  the  color  plate 
facing  this  page  shows  a  piece  of  silk,  dating  from  the  XVI  century,  in 
which  a  complementary  color  scheme  has  been  used.  Japanese  prints,  hand- 
printed from  wood-blocks,  are  often  so  complete  in  color  harmony  that  we 
may  select  from  almost  any  part  of  them  a  rectangle  containing  a  color 
scheme  of  much  beauty  and  of  unusual  quality.  A  Japanese  print  is 
reproduced  in  the  color  plate  facing  page  222. 

Note.  A  number  of  exercises  in  constructive  design  are  suggested  in  the  pages  that  follow. 
They  involve  the  use  of  different  materials,  such  as  cardboard,  cloth,  leather,  clay,  wood  and 
metal,  and  are  adapted  to  the  ability  of  average  high  school  students  in  localities  where  the  neces- 
sary equipment  is  supplied.  But  even  if  it  is  not  possible  to  make  the  articles,  the  student  will 
gain  an  understanding  of  the  application  of  design  to  articles  of  daily  use  by  working  out  the 
problems  on  paper.  By  doing  this,  his  judgment  and  taste  will  be  proportionately  developed, 
although  his  experience  will  be  far  richer  if  he  is  able  to  construct  the  articles  from  appropriate 
materials. 

The  Development  of  a  Stencil.  The  stencil  as  a  practical  means 
for  transferring  or  repeating  a  decorative  unit  has  been  in  use  for  many 
years,  particularly  among  the  Japanese,  whose  designs  are  characterized  by 


'/ 


ART  EDUCATION  —  HIGH  SCHOOL 


FLOWER 


great  delicacy  of  treatment  and  by  marvellous 
workmanship.  The  modern  crafts  movement,  ap- 
parently, has  revived  the  use  of  the  stencil,  for  it  is 
now  employed  quite  generally  in  interior  decoration, 
and  in  the  application  of  designs  to  fabrics  of  many 
kinds.  Curtains,  table-covers,  pillow-tops,  neck- 
scarfs,  bags  of  silk,  linen  or  of  heavier  material  are 
among  the  many  articles  of  practical  use  that  may 
be  decorated  by  means  of  a  stencil. 

Stencils  may  be  made  from  a  motive  of  any 
kind.  We  may  go  to  nature,  to  historic  ornament, 
to  geometry,  or  we  may  make  a  unit  that  is  purely 
abstract.  Fig.  88  shows  the  source  from  which 
was  designed  a  simple  stencil  for  the  decoration 
of  a  neck-scarf.  The  slender  sabbatia,  or  rose  of 
Plymouth,  was  selected  for  the  motive,  and  a  care- 
ful drawing  made  of  its  growth  and  principal  parts 
^'*'  ^  (Figs.  88  and  89).     The  stencil  shown  in  Fig.  90 

is  the  result  of  a  simplification  or  adaptation  of  the  growth  to  a  decorative 

use. 

In  planning  a  stencil  it  is  necessary  that  the  shapes  to  be  cut  out  shall 

be  separated  from  one  another,  and  that  all  parts  of  the  background  shall  be 

connected. 

To  illustrate :     If  the  leaf  shapes  in  Fig.  90  had  been  connected  with 

the  stem,  it    would   have  been  difficult  to  keep  the  parts    of   the    stencil 

from  shifting  when  the  color  was  applied.     The  same  is  true  of  the  flower 

shape  ;  each  petal  was  drawn  separate  from  its  neighbor  and  from  the  center, 

for  the  reason  just  sta'-.ed. 


DESIGN 


r 


^mm  .rfWs'.rf^i 


^^ 


After  the  design  is  drawn,  transfer  it  to  stencil  paper.  This  may  be 
prepared  by  spreading  a  coating  of  boiled  linseed  oil  upon  both  sides  of 
heavy  manila  paper,  allowing  it  to  dry  thoroughly  before  using  ;  or,  the  design 
may  be  dipped  in  melted  parafhne.  Place  the  tracing  upon  a  hard  surface, 
and  with  the  sharp  point  of  the  blade  of  a  penknife  cut  the  shapes.  Fasten 
the  stencil  over  that  part  of  the  cloth  which  is  to  receive  the  decoration, 
fixing  it  firmly  in  place  with  pin  points.  Every  part  of  the  stencil  must  lie 
flat  against  the  cloth,  so  that  the  color,  when  applied,  will  not  creep  under 
the  stencil  and  blur  the  design.  With  a  small,  flat  bristle  brush  (a  clean 
mucilage  brush  will  answer)  containing  very  little  color,  brush  the  color  back 
and  forth  over  the  openings.  When  the  cloth  is  very  thin,  it  will  be  well 
to  place  a  piece  of  blotting  paper  under  the  goods  to  absorb  the  excess  of 
moisture.  Tube  oil  colors  thinned  with  turpentine  are  the  most  satisfactory 
to  use,  although  water-colors  or  dyes  may  be  employed  with  good  results. 

Exercise  XLIII.  Select  one  or  two  of  the  facts  of  the  plant  growth 
shown  in  Fig.  89,  and  arrange  from  these  motives  a  design  for  a  stencil. 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


>      ,      CARD 
BOARD 


Apply  this  unit  in 
a  border  on  a  scarf 
or  a  sash  curtain, 
usmg  some  Hght, 
dehcate  material 
and  a  color 
scheme  of  grayed 
complementaries 

Fig.  94  ^ 

in  light  value. 

The  Development  of  a  Note-Book  Cover.  Book-covers,  portfolios, 
desk-pads,  memorandum  tablets,  calendar-backs,  wall-pockets  of  various 
kinds  and  boxes  are  a  few  of  the  useful  and  attractive  articles  that  can  be 
made  with  an  equipment  of  cardboard,  book-linen,  or  chambray-gingham  and 
library  paste.  Fig.  92  shows  the  position  of  four  pieces  of  cardboard  on  a 
piece  of  book-linen  cut  large  enough  to  allow  for  margins,  thickness  and 
hinges.  The  pieces  of  cardboard  are  pasted  clown  firmly,  paste  being  spread 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  linen.  Fig.  93  is  a  detail  drawing  showing 
the  position  of  a  corner  of  the  board  in  relation  to  the  linen.  In  order  to 
ensure  a  neat  fold,  the  cloth  is  cut  on  a  diagonal  line,  but  the  corner  of  the 
board  is  a  little  distance  from  this  edge.  Fig.  94  shows  the  margins  of  linen 
pasted  over  the  edges  of  the  boards  and  pressed  down  flat.  The  perfora- 
tions in  the  strips  of  cardboard  are  for  the  cord  that  is  to  be  passed  through 
the  leaves  of  the  book  and  tied  on  the  outside,  as  shown  in  Fig.  95.  Tinted 
paper  of  a  tone  to  harmonize  with  the  linen  may  be  pasted  over  the  inner 
faces  of  the  cover. 

Exercise  XLIV.  Make  a  design  for  a  note-book  cover,  its  proportions 
to  fit  some  definite  need.     The  decoration  is  to  be  a  straight  line  corner 


DESIGN 


266 


F 


Pig.  97 


motive,  similar  to  the  examples  shown  in  Figs.  95,  96  and  97.  Construct 
the  cover  of  cardboard  and  a  suitable  textile,  planning  a  monochromatic 
color  scheme.  The  color  of  the  cloth  is  to  represent  one  of  the  values  in 
the  scheme, 

Wood-Block  Printing.  Printing  with  the  wood-block  is  an  ancient 
art  which,  like  the  art  of  stencilling,  has  recently  experienced  a  revival  of 
interest.  The  Japanese  and  Chinese  peoples  have  given  the  world  some 
wonderful  examples  of  prints  from  the  wood-block,  both  in  color  and  in  light 
and  dark  effects.  The  Japanese  prints  that  are  so  highly  prized  to-day  and 
that  are  referred  to  as  masterpieces  of  color  and  of  composition  are  printed 
from  wood-blocks,  and  so  are  many  of  the  fabrics  from  Japan.  The  design- 
ing and  cutting  of  the  wood-block,  the  preparation  of  the  color  pad  and  the 
printing  of  the  pattern  are  all  practical  exercises  which  may  be  worked  out 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


t: 

- 

1  \ 

^^            /     ::^           "^d 

-?^====^;:  ::S====:5^ 

^                               Z  >     L-S                               <L 

1               1            ^ 

.  "::  "■       ±..-.            1 

in  the  schoolroom,  and  many  are  the  interesting  decorative  effects  that  may- 
be accomphshed  by  the  use  of  this  craft. 

Figs.  98  and  99  show  one  way  of  developing  a  design  for  a  wood-block. 
The  naturalistic  form  of  an  insect  was  drawn  on  squared  paper,  and  the 
various  shapes  were  then  modified  and  made  to  follow  the  straight  lines  of 
the  squares.  In  this  way  the  motive  was  made  conventional  and  suitable 
for  decorative  use. 

To  prepare  a  wood-block,  select  I"  stock  of  clear,  soft  wood,  such  as 
basswood,  and  cut  blocks  of  a  size  to  accommodate  the  design.  Sandpaper 
very  carefully  that  face  of  the  block  which  is  to  receive  the  design,  and 
transfer  the  design  to  this  face  by  means  of  carbon  paper.  With  a  sharp 
pocket  knife,  cut  vertically  on  the  lines  of  the  design  (Fig.  100).  Then, 
with  an  oblique  cut,  begin  to  chip  away  that  part  of  the  block  not  included 
in  the  pattern.  (A  gouging  tool  would  be  of  great  assistance  here,  although 
the  whole  block  is  often  carved  with  a  common  pocket  knife.)  Keep  up 
this  process  until  you  have  cut  the  background  away  to  a  depth  of  a  quarter- 
inch  (Fig.  1 01).  Be  sure  that  the  Hues  of  the  design  are  sharp  and  true, 
and  that  the  background  is  of  even  depth  (Fig.  102).  The  color  pad  is 
made  by  placing  several  thicknesses  of  cheese-cloth,  cut  somewhat  longer 
than  the  block,  over  blotting-paper.      Saturate  the  pad  thus  formed  with 


DESIGN 


267 


\ 


f^i^^l 


water-color,  dye,  or  with  oil-color  thinned  with  turpentine.  The  pad  should 
be  wet  enough  with  color  to  secure  a  good  print,  but  not  so  wet  as  to  blur 
the  impression.  The  block  and  pad  should  be  used  in  much  the  same  way 
as  are  a  rubber  stamp  and  pad,  and  several  trials  should  be  made  on  paper 
before  attempting  to  print  upon  a  fabric.  In  case  two  colors  are  desired  in 
the  print,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  them  to  the  block  by  means  of  a  brush. 

Exeixise  XL  V.  From  a  flower  or  insect  motive,  plan  a  design  for 
wood-block  printing.  Prepare  the  block  as  described  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph, and  print  a  border  decoration  on  some  material  suitable  for  a  sash- 
curtain.     (See  Fig.  103.) 

Leather  Modelling.  Leather  is  another  material  that  may  be  easily 
adapted  to  schoolroom  conditions,  and  many  designs  may  be  developed 
through  this    medium    into  articles  of  use  and  of   beauty.     Two  kinds  of 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


leather  are  in  general  use,  giv 
ing  very  different  results.  One 
kind,  sheepskin,  is  inexpensive, 
and  is  used  for  bags  of  various 
kinds,  for  moccasins,  for  photo- 
graph and  toilet-cases,  etc.  It  can  be  decorated  with  pierced  designs 
(designs  that  are  expressed  by  means  of  shapes  cut  out,  as  in  a  stencil)  or  it 
may  be  painted  or  stained.  Sheepskin  is  not  satisfactory  for  modelling, 
however,  and  for  this  purpose  the  skin  known  as  Russian  calf  is  usually 
selected.  Figs.  104  and  105  show  two  designs  for  belts;  the  dark  back- 
ground represents  the  parts  pressed  down  with  the  modelling  tool,  and  the 
light  parts  represent  the  design  left  by  this  process  in  relief.  In  planning 
the  design  it  is  best  to  make  the  shapes  a  little  wider  than  you  desire  them 
to  appear  in  the  finished  article,  for  in  modelling  the  tendency  is  to  encroach 
upon  the  parts  in  relief.  The  modelling  tools  shown  in  Fig.  106  may  be 
purchased,  but  often  home-made  substitutes,  developed  from  common  nut- 
picks  set  in  wooden  handles  are  shaped  by  filing  and  by  finishing  with 
emery  cloth  into  instruments  that  answer  quite  as  well  as  do  the  more 
expensive  tools.  Before  transferring  the  pattern,  the  leather  should\  be 
moistened  with  a  damp  sponge,  and  the  pattern,  drawn  on  paper,   should  be 


DESIGN 


CARD  CASE 
FiO.  107 

laid  over  the  damp  surface  of  the  leather 
and  traced  with  a  hard  pencil  The  im- 
pression on  the  leather  will  be  enough 
to  permit  the  lines  of  the  design  to  be 
easily  followed.  Carbon  paper  should  not 
be  used  as  a  means  of  transfer.  After 
the  pattern  is  clearly  traced,  make  a 
strong  line  around  the  design,  using  the 

sharp  pointed  tool.  With  the  blunt,  rounding  tool  press  down  the  back- 
ground, modelling  away  from  the  design  in  short  strokes.  When  finished, 
the  background  should  present  a  smooth,  even  texture.  The  leather  must 
be  repeatedly  dampened  while  the  modelling  is  being  done,  to  keep  it  in  a 
pliable  condition. 

Exercise  XL  VI.  Plan  a  simple  design  for  a  belt  or  a  card-case,  as 
suggested  in  Figs.  104  and  105,  or  in  Figs.  107  and  108.  In  carrying  out 
the  design  in  leather,  the  belt  may  be  finished  with  a  suitable  buckle ;  the 
card-case  should  be  lined  with  silk  and  stitched  on  a  sewing-machine. 

Modelling  in  Clay.  The  designer's  knowledge  and  skill  are  needed 
in  the  manufacture  qf  common  articles  of  daily  use  even  more  than  they  are 
needed  in  the  planning  of  ornament.  Questions  of  materials,  proportions, 
shapes  and  colors  are  very  important  in  the  making  of  the  objects  with 
which  we  furnish  our  homes,  and  a  person's  artistic  taste  and  judgment  are 
evidenced  in  the  selection  of  things  with  which  he  surrounds  himself. 

Clay  is  an  interesting  material  in  which  to  work  out  designs  for  various 
kinds  of  pottery.  While  it  is  always  a  part  of  the  soil  of  the  earth,  clay 
varies  in  the  proportions  of  the  substances  that  compose  it.      Some  kinds 


270 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


are  fit  for  fine  china,  some  for  heavier  pottery,  some  for  common  earthen- 
ware, and  some  only  for  drain-pipes  and  flower-pots. 

Figs.  109  and  no  show  two  designs  for  tiles.  The  first  is  a  straight- 
line  design,  that  repeats  with  some  variety  the  structural  lines  of  the  square. 
In  working  out  the  design  the  decoration  appears  in  relief ;  the  background 
is  lowered  by  scraping  away  certain  portions  of  the  clay  while  it  is  in  a 
leather-hard  condition.  Fig.  no  shows  a  motive,  also  in  relief,  which  is 
taken  from  historic  ornament  of  the  Romanesque  period.  Tiles  similar  to 
those  shown  in  the  sketches  may  be  made  by  patting  and  working  the  clay 
to  form  a  smooth,  flat  square,  about  half  an  inch  thick.  When  leather-hard, 
use  a  sharp  point  to  outline  the  design  with  a  line  sunk  into  the  surface  of 
the  clay.  With  a  wooden  modelling  tool  scrape  away  the  background  until 
the  ornament  is  about  i"  or  i"  in  relief.  When  the  tile  is  thoroughly  dry 
it  may  be  fired  for  the  first  time.  After  this,  apply  a  colored  glaze  and  fire 
the  second  time. 

The  inkstand  (Fig.  1 11)  is  made  by  taking  a  lump  of  moist  clay  of  a 
size  that  approximates  the  size  of  the  desired  article,  and  rolling  it  with  the 
palms  of  the  hands  into  a  ball.  To  start  the  hollow  of  the  ink-well,  press 
the  thumb  into  the  ball.  Then  wet  the  thumb  and  fingers  slightly,  sprink- 
ling a  few  drops  of  water  into  the  hollow.     With  the  thumb  on  the  inside 


DESIGN- 


271 


and  the  fingers  on  the  outside,  manipulate  the  mass  to  form  a  cube,  striving 
to  keep  the  hollow  or  well  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  mass.  By  adding  to 
or  cutting  away  from  the  clay,  correct  the  form  and  proportions  when 
necessary.  When  leather-hard,  apply  the  decoration  as  described  in  the 
making  of  the  tiles.  The  lid  or  cover  is  made  separately,  somewhat  larger 
than  the  size  of  the  opening.  After  drying  thoroughly,  give  the  piece  the 
first  firing;  then  apply  the  glaze  and  fire  again. 

Exercise  XL  VII.  Make  a  design  for  a  tile,  using  as  a  decoration 
some  straight-line  or  historic  motive.  Trace  this  design  on  water-color 
paper  and  apply  a  wash  of  some  grayed  color.  Try  to  show  the  ornament 
in  relief,  by  means  of  shading  with  a  darker  value  of  the  same  color,  as 
suggested  in  Figs.  109  and  no.  If  it  is  possible  to  work  this  out  in  clay, 
make  a  tracing  of  the  design,  transfer  it  to  clay,  and  proceed  as  previously 
directed. 

Exercise  XL  VIII.  Design  an  ink-well,  showing  it  in  color,  in  a  per- 
spective sketch.      Carry  out  this  exercise  in  clay  if  possible. 

Designs  for  Metal  Work.  Designs  for  metal  work  can  be  fully 
developed  only  when  a  special  room  and  equipment  are  devoted  to  this 
purpose.  A  heavy  table  or  solid  bench  is  necessary  for  the  setting  up  of 
vises  in  order  to  facilitate  the  processes  of  hammering,  sawing  and  filing 


272 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Certain  tools,  especially  adapted  to 
such  work  are  indispensable.  In 
schools  that  are  supplied  with  a  manual 
training  equipment  or  a  shop,  metal 
work  can  be  done,  but  it  should  not  be 
attempted  in  an  ordinary  studio  or 
class-room, 
p^^  ^^2  T^^  decoration  for  the  tray  shown 

in  Y\g.  112  is  an  abstract  design 
worked  out  in  a  circular  space  by  means  of  structural  lines.  The  tray  itself 
was  made  from  a  flat  piece  of  20-gauge  copper,  formed  by  hammering  the 
metal  over  a  wooden  block.  The  decoration  was  etched  with  diluted 
perchloride  of  iron,  and  the  copper  was  colored  with  a  solution  of  barium 
sulphide. 

The  process  of  making  the  circular  tray  shown  in  the  sketch  was  as 
follows  :  With  the  compasses,  a  circle  of  the  required  size  of  the  tray  was 
drawn  on  a  piece  of  sheet-copper.  .  This  circular  shape  was  cut  out  with 
tinner's  shears,  and  the  edge  made  "true"  by  filing.  A  second  circle  was 
then  drawn  on  the  part  cut  out,  having  the  same  center  and  a  radius  as 
much  less  than  the  radius  of  the  first  circle  as  the  required  depth  of  the 
tray.  In  this  case,  the  distance  between  the  two  circumferences  was 
about  I". 

This  outer  margin  of  the  disk  was  then  placed  over  the  curved  end  of  a 
wooden  block  which  had  been  shaped  to  fit  the  required  curvature  of  the 
tray.  The  block  was  held  in  a  vise,  and  the  margin  was  hammered  with 
light  blows,  and  was  continually  moved  over  the  surface  of  the  block  until 
the  rounding  edge  of  the  tray  was  "  formed  up."  To  facilitate  this  part  of  the 
work,  a  hammer  with  a  convex  face  was  used,  and  its  blows  fell  between 
the  inner  circle  and  the  outer  edge  of  the  disk.  The  form  was  corrected 
and  the  curvature  made  uniform  by  repeated  hammering.     The  tray  was 


DESIGN 


273 


then  cleansed  by  immersing  it  in  a  bath  called  a  "pickle,"  consisting  of 
two  tablespoonfuls  of  sulphuric  acid  to  one  gallon  of  water.  It  was  left 
in  this  solution  until  bright,  then  washed  in  water  and  dried  with  a  cloth. 
The  decorative  unit  was  then  traced  on  the  center  of  the  tray  by  means 
of  carbon  paper.  With  a  brush  and  a  varnish  known  as  asphaltum,  all  the 
parts  not  to  be  etched  were  then  covered.  A  solution  of  perchloride  of  iron 
and  water  in  equal  parts  was  then  poured  into  the  tray,  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  cover  the  decoration.  The  acid  was  allowed  to  act  until  the  pattern 
was  properly  etched.  (In  this  case  the  time  allowed  was  about  thirty 
minutes.)  Then  the  acid  was  poured  off  and  the  tray  rinsed  in  water,  after 
which  the  varnish  was  removed  by  burning  with  a  flame.  The  tray  was 
was  returned  to  the  pickle,  cleaned  as  before  and  then  polished  with  worn 
emery-cloth,  grade  oo.  A  rich  brown  coloring  was  obtained  by  dipping  the 
tray  in  a  solution  of  barium  sulphide.  Finally  the  tray  was  again  thoroughly 
washed. 

The  tea-stand  shown  in  Fig.  1 14  was  made  by  fitting  to  a  tile  a  strip  of 
26-gauge  copper,  cut  twice  as  wide  as  the  thickness  of  the  tile.  This  strip 
was  fitted  to  the  tile  and  the  corners  mitred.  The  upper  edge  of  the  strip 
was  bent  over  the  straight  edge  of  a  flat  iron  block,  until  it  fitted  the  edges 
of  the  tile.  With  a  pattern  the  legs  were  then  cut  from  20-gauge  copper, 
using  a  metal  saw.  They  were  bent  to  fit  the  corners  by  the  use  of  the  vise 
and  hammer.  Holes  for  rivets  were  drilled  in  the  legs  and  strips,  and  brass 
rivets,  which  can  be  purchased  in  a  hardware  store,  were  cut  to  the  proper 
length  and  hammered  into  place.  The  tile  was  put  into  this  frame,  turned 
face  downward,  and,  by  gentle  blows  of  a  wooden  hammer,  the  lower  edge 
of  the  strip  was  bent  over  to  hold  the  tile.  The  metal  was  then  rubbed  and 
polished  by  the  use  of  00  emery-cloth,  somewhat    worn.     A    coloring   of 


274 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  115 

antique   green    was    obtained    by    painting   the   metal    with    the   following 
solution :  — 

Copper  nitrate „ 48  grains. 

Ammonia  Chloride , .  .48  grains. 

Calcium   Chloride 48  grains. 

Water 3  oz. 

Exercise  XLIX.  Plan  an  abstract  design  for  the  decoration  of  a 
shallow  circular  tray.  Make  a  perspective  sketch  of  the  top  and  side  views 
of  the  proposed  tray,  using  two  values  of  brown  water-color,  similar  in  effect 
to  the  sketches  shown  in  Figs.  1 12  and  1 13. 

The  Use  of  Several  Mediums.  A  knowledge  of  several  different 
mediums  will  enable  the  student  to  make  interesting  combinations  of 
material  in  developing  designs.  Fig.  115  shows  an  inkstand  of  wood  with 
an  ink-well  of  pottery  and  a  cover  of  metal.  Fig,  1 16  is  a  sketch  of  a  jewel 
casket  of  wood,  reinforced  with  metal  trimmings.  Many  other  combinations 
may  be  arranged,  such  as  a  leather  opera  or  shopping  bag,  made  of  ooze- 
finished  sheepskin  or  cowhide,  lined  with  satin  or  silk ;  a  screen  of  wood 
with  set-in  panels  of  modelled  leather ;  a  wall  cabinet  of  wood,  metal  and 
glass ;  a  lantern  of  stained  glass  and  copper ;  a  lamp-shade  of  metal  lined 
with  silk ;  a  book-rack  of  wood,  with  metal  trimmings,  etc. 

Exercise  L.  Make  a  design  for  a  leather  shopping  or  opera  bag.  the 
decoration  to  be  pierced  or  cut  out,  showing  an  undertone  or  lining  in  some 
harmonious  color.  Plan  the  design  on  manila  paper;  then,  on  water-color 
paper  make  a  perspective  sketch,  transferring  the  decoration  to  the  sketch. 
Paint  the  bag  in  some  grayed  tone,  to  represent  leather,  leaving  uncolored 


DESIGN-  275 

the  shape  to  be  cut  out.  When  dry,  color  these  shapes  to  represent  a  silk 
or  satin  lining  in  harmonious  tone. 

If  it  is  possible  to  carry  out  this  design  in  leather,  make  a  paper  pattern 
for  the  bag,  allowing  for  seams,  and  planning  for  the  draw-string.  Cut  this 
out  of  ooze,  and  transfer  the  decoration  to  the  leather.  With  a  sharp 
pocket-knife,  cut  out  the  stencil-like  shapes.  Under  the  openings,  glue  the 
silk  undertone.  Make  an  inside  bag  of  silk  or  satin  to  fit  the  leather 
covering.  Cut  slits  for  the  draw-string,  planning  them  at  regular  intervals, 
and  cutting  them  simultaneously  in  the  leather  and  silk.  Insert  the  draw- 
string of  leather  or  silk  cord. 

Exercise  LI.  Plan  a  work-bag  with  a  circular  bottom  to  be  made  of 
coiled  rattan  covered  with  raffia,  in  the  stitch  known  as  the  "lazy  squaw" 
or  "  strap  "  stitch.     Make  this  bottom  about  four  inches  in  diameter. 

The  bag  is  to  be  made  of  a  straight  piece  of  chambray  gingham,  linen, 
or  pongee  silk,  in  soft  brown  or  "natural"  colors,  to  harmonize  with  the 
raffia  bottom.  This  strip  of  material,  after  a  one-inch  hem  is  turned  at  the 
top,  should  measure  about  seven  inches  in  width,  and  should  be  long  enough 
to  gather  slightly  about  the  outer  edge  of  the  disk.  A  little  below  the 
middle  of  the  strip,  print  with  a  wood-block,  in  dark  brown  coloring,  a  well 
spaced  border  from  an  interesting  unit.  (For  the  preparation  of  the  wood- 
block see  pages  266  and  267.  The  unit  may  be  an  animal  form,  such  as  a 
rabbit,  a  duck,  a  chicken,  a  stork,  a  cat,  a  dog  or  an  insect.)  When  the 
printing  is  done,  sew  the  short  edges  of  the  strip  together,  and  gather  the 
bottom  edge  to  fit  the  disk.  Sew  it  firmly  in  place.  For  a  draw-string  use 
a  brown  silk  cord.  The  addition  to  the  cord  of  one  or  two  Indian  beads  will 
add  an  attractive  color  note. 

To  know  how  to  combine  and  manipulate  such  materials  as  are  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  exercises,  to  be  conscious  of  their  limitations  as  well 
as  of  their  possibilities,  to  be  able  to  select  fine  color  arrangements  and  to 
possess  artistic  judgment  regarding  the  merit  of  objects  that  every  one  must 
use  and  at  some  time  purchase,  are  some  of  the  results  that  come  from  the 
the  training  of  the  appreciation  through  a  study  of  design.  Design  should 
manifest  itself  wherever  the  art  question  is  present.  It  is  an  effort  of  the 
mind  to  create  something  in  which  order  and  interrelation,  and  therefore 
beauty,  shall  predominate.      No  matter  what  the  occupation,  beauty  should 


276 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


be  a  present  element.  Every  home  is  an  expression  of  good  or  of  poor 
taste,  and  marks  the  designer,  who  is  in  this  case  the  occupant,  either  as  a 
person  possessing  artistic  discrimination,  or  as  one  to  whom  the  gateway  of 
beauty  remains  closed. 


CHAPTER    VII 

HISTORIC    ORNAMENT 

Primitive  Decoration.  Various  opinions  are  held  by  archaeologists  as 
to  the  origin  of  ornament,  or  of  the  origin  of  the  motive  or  impulse  which  led 
to  its  use.  Carlyle  says  that  the  first  spiritual  want  of  a  barbarous  man  is 
decoration.  We  have  evidences  that  this  want  manifested  itself  in  prehistoric 
times,  for  earthen  bowls  and  other  utensils  have  been  found,  fashioned  evi- 
dently for  daily  use,  and  decorated  with  rude  shapes  scratched  on  the  hard 
surface  of  the  burnt  clay.  Primitive  man  wished  to  beautify  the  objects 
about  him.  As  he  became  more  skilful  he  used  signs  and  symbols  to  express 
his  ideas,  as  is  shown  in  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  and  in  the  sign  language  of 


Fig.  1.     Indian  Symbols 


Other  races  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  The  North  American  Indian,  for 
instance,  would  sometimes  cut  a  message  upon  the  bark  of  a  tree.  It 
might  be  an  invitation  to  attend  a  council  where  the  pipe  of  peace  was  to  be 
smoked,  and  this  idea  would  be  expressed  by  a  sketch  of  a  pipe  upon  the 
bark,  together  with  the  symbols  of  the  moon  and  sun,  to  designate,  perhaps, 
the  time.  Or,  if  the  message  were  to  be  one  of  war,  a  sketch  of  a  tomahawk 
would  signify  a  threat  or  challenge.     Even  at  the  present  time  the  Indian 


278  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

uses  symbols  in  his  decoration,  and  depicts  the  scenes  that  interest  him  in 
his  daily  life.  A  birch-bark  box  made  by  an  Indian  of  the  Penobscot  tribe, 
in  Maine,  was  decorated  with  symbols  representing  a  wild-cat  and  an  Indian 
with  bow  and  arrows,  together  with  borders  made  of  semicircles  and  triangles, 
which  may  or  may  not  have  had  added  meaning.  Fig.  i  shows  some  of  the 
symbols  used  by  American  Indians  in  their  decoration  and  picture-writing. 

A  savage  does  not  always  follow  his  own  creative  impulse ;  he  is  very 
apt  to  imitate  some  decoration  that  has  pleased  his  fancy.  Often  the  deco- 
rations that  originated  in  one  tribe  or  nation  were  copied  by  a  neighboring 
tribe,  and  the  real  significance  of  the  symbols  was  in  this  way  lost.  A 
comparatively  modern  example  of  such  imitation  is  recorded  in  the  account  of 
a  shipwreck  which  occurred  nearly  a  hundred  years  ago.  The  ship,  which  was 
a  whaling  vessel,  was  wrecked  on  the  shores  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and 
among  the  spoils  of  wreckage  were  some  pieces  of  the  sails.  The  captain 
of  the  ship,  for  want  of  other  occupation,  made  some  stains  of  leaves  and 
bark,  and  painted  upon  one  of  these  pieces  of  cloth  a  rude  picture  of  a  whale 
spouting  and  a  full-rigged  ship.  His  work  was  greatly  admired  by  the 
natives,  and  was  speedily  imitated  until  the  supply  of  sail-cloth  was  exhausted. 
If  such  forms  of  decoration  are  still  in  use  there,  they  surely  did  not  originate 
with  the  natives.  In  similar  ways,  many  other  forms  of  decoration  have  been 
carried  from  tribe  to  tribe  and  from  country  to  country,  although,  in  the 
beginning,  conditions  of  life,  surroundings  and  religious  belief  suggested, 
undoubtedly,  the  decorative  motives.  The  American  Indian  in  the  north- 
east, for  instance,  used  the  deer,  the  moose,  the  wild-cat  and  the  owl,  while 
we  find  in  the  decorations  of  the  western  tribes  the  buffalo,  the  bear  and 
the  mountain  lion. 

Primitive  decoration  had  one  admirable  characteristic,  in  that  it  was 
never  overdone ;  the  ornament  upon  paddle,  tomahawk  or  knife  was  never 
allowed  to  interfere  wdth  its  usefulness  as  a  tool  or  weapon. 

Every  nation  that  has  lived  upon  the  earth  has  left  in  some  form  a 
record  of  its  life.  Sometimes  this  record  appears  in  the  nation's  architecture 
and  ornament.  When  a  general  style  of  ornament  has  become  closely  identi- 
fied with  the  life  of  a  race  or  nation  it  is  called  historic.  The  three  most 
important  styles  of  historic  ornament  are  the  Egyptian,  the  Greek  and 
the  Roman. 


HISTORIC   ORNAMENT 


279 


Egyptian 

People  and  Customs.  If  we  look  at  the  map  of  Africa  we  find  that 
the  country  called  Egypt  is  limited  to  the  region  lying  along  the  shores  of 
the  Nile,  a  river  which  has  many  mouths,  forming  a  delta  (Fig.  2).  On 
one  side  of  Egypt  is  the  Libyan  desert,  and  on  the  other  the  Nubian  desert. 
In  area,  Egypt  itself  is  only  a  little  larger  than  the  State  of  Maryland. 
Except  in  the  Delta  of  the  Nile,  it  rarely  if  ever  rains  in  Egypt,  but  moist- 
ure and  fertility  are  supplied  to  the  soil  by  means  of  the  overflowing 
waters  of  the  river.  The  Nile  rises  in  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  it  is  fed  by 
lakes  and  mountain  streams.  These  sources  or  feeders  of  the  Nile  become 
so  swollen  by  the  annual  rains  of 
that  strange  region  that  the  river 
cannot  carry  the  waters  in  its  natural 
channels,  and  therefore  overflows 
its  banks.  Not  only  water  is  car- 
ried to  the  burning  sands  of  the 
desert,  but  a  rich  deposit  of  alluvial 
mud  is  made  on  either  side  of  the 
river.  A  very  primitive  system  of 
irrigation  carries  the  water  back 
some  distance  into  the  country. 
When  the  water  subsides,  vegeta- 
tion springs  up,  and  many  flowers 
and  plants  appear,  chief  of  which 
is  the  lotus.  The  people  rejoice  at 
the  appearance  of  the  lotus,  as  we 
do  at  the  coming  of  spring,  for  it  is 
to  them  the  promise  of  the  harvest. 
At  rare  intervals  the  inundation  is 
not  complete,  and  such  a  condition 
is  always  followed  by  famine  and 
much  distress.  The  people  of 
Egypt  depend  for  their  harvest  on 
the    rich    mud    and    its    abundant 


-:-%^ 

-      -          -^      ■  ^    -"        ..>*'    -^-'- 

# 

\^^ 

j 

fcAIRO                  A- 

HCRACLZOPOLtS         ^^^^ 

y              '^^ 

|-—                  ^ 

^ 

tX 

1 
" 

theIbes 

EJDFOU^ 

PHLAE.5 

Fig.  2.    Map  of  Egypt.    From  Mariette  Bey 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  3.    Egyptian  Symbol,  Scroll 


<,<«««««««««<■ 

««««««««««< 

Fig.  4.    Egyptian  Symbol,  Zigzag 


deposit.  The  river  Nile,  with  its 
beneficent  action,  came  to  be  looked 
upon  as  a  supernatural  power,  and  the 
people  worshipped  it,  and  used  in  their 
decoration  a  peculiar  symbol  to  typify 
it.  This  was  sometimes  a  scroll,  to 
indicate  the  slightly  winding  course 
of  the  river,  and  sometimes  a  zigzag 
(Figs.  3  and  4). 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  Egyp- 
tians were  dependent  upon  the  various 
forces  and  aspects  of  nature,  and,  like 
other  primitive  races,  they  deified  what  they  did  not  understand,  and  wor- 
shipped as  gods  the  sun  and  other  heavenly  bodies,  the  river,  many  animals 
and  some  plants.  The  lotus  was  an  emblem  of  especial  sacredness,  and  they 
attached  to  it  the  idea  of  immortality  and  resurrection.  Fig.  5  shows  several 
motives  taken  from  the  lotus.  Some  form  of  its  growth  is  seen  in  almost 
every  ornament  that  they  employed,  from  the  decorations  of  objects  in 
daily  use  to  the  magnificent  capitals  of  their  columns. 

Architecture  and  Decoration.  The  earliest  dwellings  of  the  Egyp- 
tians and  their  first  temples  and  tombs  were  cut  out  of  rock,  but  later  they 
built  huts  of  clay,  with  walls  supported  by  reeds.  These  supports  are  typified 
in  some  of  their  columns,  which  bear  a  conventional  resemblance  to  reeds 
bound  near  the  top  by  bands  (Fig.  6).     Climatic  conditions  in  Egypt  made 


Fig.  5.    The  Lotus,  Conventionalized 


HISTORIC   ORNAMENT 


281 


Fig.  6.  From  Temple  near  Thebes 


it  possible  for  dwellings  to  be  constructed  with  flat  roofs  supported  by  pillars. 
Often  the  spaces  between  these  pillars  were  left  open,  and  in  them  were 
hung  richly  colored  rugs ;  or  if  clay  walls  were  used  between  the  pillars, 
colored  decorations  were  placed  upon  the  surface  thus  formed.  The  scheme 
of  coloring  for  these  decorations  was  always  strong  and  rich,  consisting, 
mainly,  of  yellow,  red,  blue,  green,  dark  brown  and  black.  The  gorgeous 
coloring  in  decoration  which  is  noticeable  in  Egypt,  Arabia,  India  and  Mexico 
seems  to  be  characteristic  of  southern  nations  generally.  Nature  apparently 
assists  this  choice,  for  the  building  materials  found  there  —  the  stone  and 
marble  from  their  quarries  —  are  more  richly  colored  than  are  similar 
materials  found  in  the  north. 

Egyptian  architecture  was  especially  characterized  by  the  colossal  size 
of  temples,  tombs,  pyramids  and  obelisks,  all  richly  ornamented.  Thousands 
of  slaves,  over  which  the  rulers  of  Egypt  had  unlimited  power,  were  employed 
for  years  in  building  these  structures.  The  three  great  pyramids  of  Gizeh, 
seen  from  the  river  Nile,  were  tombs  built  by  three  great  kings.  As  soon  as 
a  king  came  into  power  he  set  about  building  his  tomb,  and  it  was  his  aim  to 
excel  all  others  in  the  magnificence  of  this  monument.      Upon  its  walls  were 


282 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


canned  and  pictured  the  great  achievements  of  his  reign,  his  conquests,  his 
glories  and  the  spoils  of  war.  East  of  the  middle  pyramid  may  be  seen  also 
the  strange  figure  of  the  gigantic  Sphinx,  with  its  human  head  and  with  the 
body  of  a  lion.  This  statue  is  cut  from  solid  rock,  and  is  now  half  buried 
by  the  shifting  sands  of  the  desert.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  made  in 
honor  of  some  god  or  ruler,  and  to  symbolize  intelligence  and  strength  (Fig.  7). 


Fig.  7.     Sphinx  and  Pyramids 


All  the  sculptured  figures  of  the  Egyptians,  whether  in  the  round,  in 
relief  or  in  incised  carving,  were  conventional  in  the  extreme  and  symbolic 
in  character.  So  were  their  drawings  and  decorations  in  color.  The  winged 
globe,  often  placed  over  doorways,  signified  protection,  and  the  oft-repeated 
scarabeus  or  beetle  was  emblematic  of  the  idea  of  creation.  Besides  these 
forms  of  animals,  plants  and  the  human  figure,  the  Egyptians  produced  orna- 
ment by  the  use  of  simple  line  arrangements,  obtaining  variety  by  means 
of  spacing.  Everything  they  made  was  ornamented,  and  richly  decorated 
with  color. 


HISTORIC   ORNAMENT 


Fig.  8.     Ml'mmy-Case— Art  Museum,  Boston 

The  religion  of  the  Egyptians  led  them  to  preserve  their  dead.  A 
body  was  first  embalmed  with  great  care,  then  swathed  in  bandages  and 
placed  in  a  wooden  case,  which  was  shaped  to  indicate  the  form  of  the  body 
and  was  covered  with  painted  ornament.  In  earlier  times  the  face  was  shaped 
in  wood  and  placed  above  the  head,  but  a  later  custom  was  to  insert  a  portrait 
in  the  case,  in  place  of  the  shaped  and  painted  face.  This  portrait  was 
painted  from  life  and  hung  upon  the  wall  of  the  home  until  death,  when  it 
was  used  in  the  manner  just  described  (Fig.  8). 


Fig.  9.    Example  of  Egyptian  Wall  Decoration 


284 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


iX^Pl  ^1  1"/;/ 


Following  the  example  of  the  kings,  the 
life  of  the  common  people,  their  manners, 


2\ff    customs  and  amusements  were  represented 

T?    upon  the  walls  of  their  tombs,  together  with 

'-^     somewhat  boastful  suggestions  of  their  pos- 

•.    sessions,  such  as  herds  of  cattle,  horses  and 

"■^^      L;-oats.     Fig.  9  is  an  example  of  this  peculiar 

lid  characteristic  form  of  decoration.      Fig. 

o    is    an    illustration    of    ornament,    taken 

!  Dm  the  temple  of  Abydos.     It  represents 

lie  great  Egyptian    king,  Seti    I,  in    royal 

iiray,    holding   an    image  of  Truth.      This 

•  "     image  has  on  its  head  the  ostrich  feather, 

'/    which  signifies  justice.      In  its  hands  is  the 

*•  \    !',/     hooped  cross,  symbol  of  divine  life.      It  is  by 

-'  means  of  this  symbolic  ornament,  as  well  as 

Fig.     10.        OhN    \M1    M     i    K.IM     iLUVPTIAN  ,  ,  ,  r  ■  ••  1 

Temple  by  Other  forms  of  picture-wntmg  carved  or 

painted  upon  imperishable  stone,  that  we  have  learned    so    much    of   the 
history  of  this  ancient  nation. 

Greek 

Architecture  and  Ornament.  The  Grecian  people  lived  in  a  country 
very  different  from  that  which  lies  along  the  banks  of  the  Nile.  Their 
climate,  instead  of  being  mild  and  dry  with  little  difference  in  temperature 
throughout  the  year,  was  full  of  variations,  like  our  own.  It  was  hot  in 
summer  and  cold  in  winter,  and  the  surface  of  the  country  was  broken  and 
mountainous,  bounded  by  an  irregular  coast-line.  Although  the  people  and 
their  characteristics  were  as  different  as  the  countries,  we  can  trace  the 
influence  of  the  older  nations  upon  the  art  of  the  Greeks.  As  a  people  the 
Greeks  were  esthetic ;  they  were  lovers  of  beauty,  expressing  these  qualities 
in  their  architecture  and  their  ornament.  Unlike  the  Egyptian  style,  their 
decoration  was  ideal  rather  than  symbolic.  Architecture  was  their  grandest 
achievement,  and  in  this  they  have  never  been  surpassed.  The  most  beautiful 
of  their  temples  was  the  Parthenon  on  the  Acropolis  at  Athens,  now  in  ruins. 
It  was  built  of  marble  and  adorned  with  exquisitely  sculptured  ornament. 


HISTORIC   ORNAMENT 


285 


E  Partiiexox  Restored 


The  rare  beauty  of  its  perfect  proportions  is  apparent  in  the  illustration 
(Fig.  1 1 ),  which  gives  a  view  of  the  east  front  of  the  structure  as  it  appeared 
in  its  original  splendor.  A  frieze  running  around  the  upper  part  of  the 
inner  wall  illustrates  one  of  their  great  ceremonial  processions  held  once  in 
four  years  in  honor  of  Athene,  their  favorite  goddess.  In  this  frieze  twelve 
gods  are  represented,  seated,  with  the  procession  of  horses,  riders,  and 
bearers  of  offerings  moving  towards  them.  The  sculpture  is  in  low  relief, 
and  although  it  is  now  greatly  mutilated,  the  fragments  are  still  of  marvelous 
beauty  (Fig.  12). 

Three  styles  of  columns  were  used  in  Greek  architecture  as  supports  to 
the  roofs  of  the  temples,  and  they  are  called  the  classic  orders,  known  as  the 
Doric,  the  Ionic  and  the  Corinthian.  These  columns  (page  307),  as  well 
as  the  Parthenon  and  the  decorative  frieze  upon  its  walls,  are  still  influencing 
and  inspiring  the  architecture  of  the  present  day.      The  ornament  of  the 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  12.    Sculptured  Ornament  from  the  Parthenon  Frieze 


Greeks  was  thoroughly  related  to  their  beautiful  architecture.  The  favorite 
motives  were  the  scroll,  the  acanthus,  the  egg-and-dart  and  the  anthemion, 
and  these  were  employed  on  capitals  and  mouldings,  upon  vase  forms,  lamps, 
and  other  objects  of  daily  use.     While  Egyptian  ornament  was  generally 

expressed  in  line  filled   in  with 
I  I  III  I     I  HI     I  ill  color,   the    Grecian   forms   were 

VTV:^^^C^^r^       often  carried  out  with  the  brush 


alone  (Fig.  13). 

Roman 

Roman  Art.  The  Roman 
Empire  was  the  next  to  develop 
great  ascendency  and  to  make 
notable     contributions     to 


HISTORIC  ORNAMENT 


287 


Fig.  14.     Pantheon,  Rome 


architecture  and  gen- 
eral building.  The 
Egyptian  and  Grecian 
nations  built  their 
temples  and  dwellings 
wdthout  the  use  of  the 
arch  or  the  dome,  con- 
fining their  construc- 
tion to  buildings  of 
one  story  and  depend- 
ing upon  the  lintel 
and  the  column  as 
»hief  elements.  With 
the  arch  and  the 
dome,  the  Romans 
were  able  to  surpass  in  magnitude  and  in  utility  the  buildings  of  the  older 
nations,  and  their  aqueducts,  baths,  triumphal  arches  and  temples  were 
splendid  monuments  to  their  skill  as  a  nation  of  builders  (Figs.  14  and  15). 
The  Romans  were  ambitious,  proud  and  powerful.  Their  emperors  were 
conquerors,  returning 
from  war  and  con- 
quests with  many 
prisoners  and  with 
rich  spoils.  Their 
slaves,  many  of  them 
Greeks,  brought  with 
them  the  art  of  their 
mother  country,  but 
under  Roman  influ- 
ence this  art  soon  lost 
its  simplicity  and  re- 
finement, and  became 
heavy  and  ornate. 
While  some  Roman 
ornament  is  beautiful,  Fig.  is.    aech  of  Constantine,  romb 


ART  EDUCATIOIV—HJGH  SCHOOL 


^//-^ 


Roman  Ornament  fsom  the  AacH  of  Constantini 


Ftg.  Ifi.  Ornamknt  from  the  Temple  of  Peace,  Rome 

it  lacks  as  a  whole  the  elegance  and  purity  of  the  Grecian  styles.  The 
Romans  adopted  to  some  extent  the  Doric  and  Ionic  orders,  but  they  pre- 
ferred the  Corinthian,  and  this  style  was  further  elaborated  by  them,  until  it 
became  magnificent  in  its  wealth  of  ornament.  They  combined  rosettes, 
scrolls,  wreaths,  ribbons  and  masks,  sometimes  introducing  human  and 
animal  figures  and  often  suggesting  features  of  their  festival  or  triumphal 
marches  (Fig.  i6).  In  architecture  and  ornament,  the  Egyptian,  Greek 
and  Roman  styles  are  classed  as  belonging  to  ancient  times.  The  principal 
medieval  styles  are  known  as  Romanesque,  Byzantine,  Saracenic  and  Gothic. 


Romanesque    and   Byzantine 

Romanesque  Art.  As  the  Romanesque  and  the  Byzantine  styles  of 
ornament  both  sprang  from  the  same  source,  they  are  often  confused,  and  in 
order  to  understand  their  distinction  we  must  know  something  of  the  history 
of  those  times,  and  of  the  influence  of  the  early  Christian  religion  upon 
architecture  and  decoration.  Throughout  the  period  of  their  persecution  the 
Christians  held  their  meetings  in  the  catacombs,  or  underground  burial  vaults, 


HISTORIC   ORNAMENT 


289 


in  Rome.  Here  they  buried  their  martyred  dead,  and  held  communion  in 
memory  of  the  Last  Supper.  The  slab-Hke  table  placed  over  graves  in  ancient 
churchyards  is  a  symbol  of  this  custom.  In  their  communications  with  one 
another  the  early  Christians  were  often  obliged  to  use  secret  means,  or  signs, 
because  of  their  persecution  by  the  Romans.  In  this  way  certain  forms, 
such  as  the  cross,  the  trefoil,  a  fish,  the  vine,  and  many  other  shapes  came  to 
have  special  significance,  and  were  often  employed  in  marking  the  burial- 
place  of  a  Christian.  Later,  these  symbols  were  embodied  in  their  orna- 
ment, which  was  styled  Romanesque.  As  time  passed  the  Christians  gained 
in  numbers  and  many  rich  and  powerful  Romans  were  converted  to  the  new 
faith,  so  that  they  dared  to  come  forth  and  hold  their  meetings  openly  in 
the  Roman  halls  of  justice,  called  basilicas.  They  were  finally  able  to  build 
churches,  and  to  convert  the  ancient  basilicas  into  temples  of  worship.  When 
the  Emperor  Constantine  became  a  Christian  he  acknowledged  his  religion 
formally,  and  transferred  the  capitol  of  the  empire  from  Rome  to  Byzantium, 
a  city  on  the  Bosporus,  in  European  Turkey.  A  new  city  was  built  on  the 
site  of  the  old  one,  and  the  emperor  named  it  Constantinople.  The 
architecture  and  ornament  which  sprang  from  this  new  impulse  were  called 


CHUBCM   OF   ST  MARKS 


church  of  st  sofia,  padua,  italy. 
Fig.  17.     Byzantine  Capitals  and  B/ 


290 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


<^U   THE   CHURCH    OF    S'    SOPHIA    CONSTANTINOPLE     VI    CENT  FROM  THE  CLOISTER  HORMISDAS,  AOIOS  SEBGIU9,  CONSTANTINOPLE      VI    CEMT. 


FROM  TNE  CHURCH  Of  5T  SOPHIA,  CONSTANTINOPLE,     VI. CENT 


FROM  THE  CHyR^H  OF  S' MARKS,  VENICE,  Al.  CENT. 


S\Q.  18.    Byzantine  Ornament 


Byzantine,  and  the  finest  example  of  the  art  achieved  by  those  builders  was 
St.  Sophia,  a  temple  of  worship,  now  a  mosque,  located  in  Constantinople. 
The  beautiful  cathedral  of  St.  Mark's,  in  Venice,  is  also  Byzantine  in  its  style. 
In  this  development  of  ornament  little  attention  was  given  to  the  decoration 
of  the  outside  of  the  church,  but  the  interiors  were  rich  with  color.  Mosaics 
and  tiles  were  favorite  materials,  used  with  backgrounds  of  gold,  blue,  delicate 
green  and  blue-green.  The  designs  were  usually  symbolic  in  character,  and 
the  color  scheme  was  strong  and  harmonious.  The  Byzantine  style  may  be 
said  to  be  a  product  of  Christian  influence  working  in  the  east,  while  the 
Romanesque  style  prevailed  in  Italy,  passing  north  to  France,  Germany  and 
England  (Figs.  17  and  18). 

Saracenic 

The  Art  of  the  Saracens.  The  Arabs  or  Saracens  were  followers 
of  Mohammed,  and  the  signs  and  symbols  of  their  religion  were  prominent 
features  of  their  ornament.     Sentences  or  texts  from  the  great  religious  book 


JIISTORIC   ORA'AMENT 


291 


H 

H 

Fig.  19.    Arabic  Inscription 


of  the  Mohammedans,  the 
Koran,  were  freely  used 
in  their  decorations,  and 
added  much  to  the  effect- 
iveness of  the  otherwise 
geometric  character  of  their 
ornament,  for  tlieir  rehgion 
forbade  them  to  copy  the 
forms  of  flowers,  trees,  ani- 
mals or  the  human  figure. 
The  Arabic  language,  like  the  Hebrew,  is  Semitic  in  origin,  and  their  characters 
or  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  graceful  and  decorative.  Fig.  19  shows  an 
Arabic  inscription,  often  used  as  a  wall  decoration.  Their  ornament  in  stone 
was  usually  in  slight  relief,  either  undercut,  or  at  right  angles  with  the  sur- 
face. This  gave  strong  light  and  shade,  while  in  the  flat  colored  ornament 
which  they  so  often  applied,  outlines  were  accented  at  the  right  and  under- 
neath, giving  a  similar  effect  (Figs.  20  and  21).  In  coloring,  Saracenic  orna- 
ment was  strong  and  brilliant,  consisting  of  gold  and  silver  combined  with 
red,  yellow  ai\d  blue,  and  often,  as  in  mosaics,  with  orange,  green  and  purple. 
As  in  all  Oriental  coloring,  however,  these  bright  hues  were  modified  by 
juxtaposition  or  intermingling,  so  that  the  effects  obtained,  while  rich  and 
gorgeous,  were  harmonious.  Examples  showing  results  of  such  combinations 
are  found  in  Oriental  rugs  and  draperies. 


Fig.  20 

Saracenic  Wall  Ornament- 


From  the  Alhambr.4 


292 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  22.    Taj  Mehal 


HISTORIC    ORNAMENT 


The  dome  was  adopted  by  the  Saracens  and  was  modified  somewhat  in 
form,  so  that  it  became  pointed  and  tapering.  The  Saracens  introduced 
many  tall  towers  and  minarets  in  their  building,  and  these  pointed  domes, 
rising  against  the  sky,  made  a  striking  and  picturesque  effect.  The  Saracenic 
arch  is  sometimes  pointed,  as  shown  in  Fig.  22,  and  sometimes  shaped  like  a 
horseshoe  (Fig.  27).  It  is  often  used  today,  when  an  elaborate  or  ornate 
effect  is  desired. 

The  best  examples  of  Saracenic  architecture  are  found  in  mosques  and 
tombs,  although  the  Alhambra  palace,  built  by  the  Moors  in  Southern  Spain, 
is  still  admired  for  its  purity  of  style  and  for  its  great  beauty,  though  it  stands 
in  ruins.  Fig.  22  shows  the  wonderful  Taj  ]\Iehal,  "  Gem  of  buildings," 
built  at  Agra,  India,  by  Shah  Jehan,  for  a  mausoleum. 


Gothic 

Cathedrals.  Gothic  architecture  and  ornament  were  outgrowths  from 
the  Romanesque  style,  and  became  a  much  fuller  and  freer  expression  of 
Christian  art  than  were  either  Romanesque  or  Byzantine  art.  Egypt,  Greece 
and  Rome  had  built  for  the  glory  of  their  kings,  their  gods  or  their  empire, 
and  they  employed  slaves  and  captives  as  builders,  counting  their  lives  and 
happiness  as  naught.  But  the  great  Gothic  cathedrals  show  a  different 
influence  ;  they  were  built  by  the  people  and  for  the  people.     The  builders 


ELY  CATHEDRAL 


S7  MARTIN   OtS  CHAMPS.  PARIS 


294 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


ar.DEK.s. 
Fig.  24.    Gothic  Ornament — Painted 


Fig.  'l^.    Gargoii.— Fku-m  :Nutke  Dame,  Paris 


Roman  and 

bomanesqub 


believed  in  the  religion  which  the 
cathedrals  expressed,  and  they  as- 
sembled in  those  vast  structures  to 
worship. 

In  their  ornament,  they  used 
motives  from  nature,  together  with 
various  geometric  forms  which  were 
symbolic.  For  instance,  the  trefoil, 
or  three-parted  leaf,  signified  the 
Trinity;  the  quatrefoil,  the  four 
evangelists  ;  the  circle,  eternity,  etc. 
Grotesque  figures  of  birds,  beasts 
and  devils  were  also  applied  to 
decorative  uses,  both  within  and 
without  these  splendid  cathedrals. 
Sculptured  saints  and  angels  deco- 
rated the  doorways,  and  the  win- 
dows were  brilliant  with  stained 
glass  (Figs.  23,  24  and  25). 

The  ground-plan  of  the  cathe- 
dral was  in  the  shape  of  a  cross; 
the  walls  were  of  great  height,  the 
ceiling  vaulted,  and  the  roof  slop- 
ing at  a  sharp  angle.     To  support 


HISTORIC   ORNAMENT 


295 


"^'       KLMa 


Fig.  29.     Cologne  Cathedral,  Exterior 


Fig.  30.    Cologne  Cathedral,  Interior 


296  ART  ED UCA TION—  HIGH  SCHO OL 

the  vaulting,  buttresses  were  constructed  at  the  sides.  Generally,  a  tower 
was  built  to  hold  the  bells,  and  smaller  towers  appeared  elsewhere  in  the 
structure,  to  repeat  the  form  and  to  contribute  to  architectural  usefulness  and 
beauty.  In  the  construction  of  doorways  and  windows  there  were  many 
variations  of  the  pointed  arch,  and  this  was  another  element  that  distin- 
guished Gothic  architecture  from  Romanesque  and  Byzantine  styles  (Figs. 
26,  27  and  28).  Gothic  art  developed  the  greatest  activity  in  England, 
France,  Germany  and  Italy,  from  the  twelfth  to  the  thirteenth  centuries. 
Notable  examples  of  Gothic  cathedrals  are  those  of  Canterbury,  Lincoln, 
Salisbury,  York  and  Westminster  Abbey,  all  in  England ;  the  Cologne 
Cathedral  in  Germany  and  the  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  in  Paris,  France. 
Figs.  29  and  30  show  an  exterior  and  an  interior  view  of  the  Cologne 
cathedral. 


Renaissance 

Famous  Artists  and  Architecture.  The  Renaissance,  as  its  name 
signifies,  was  a  period  of  awakening;  a  "new  birth"  of  interest  in  learning, 
in  discovery,  in  literature,  and  in  art.      Its  beginning  was  in  the  fourteenth 

'  century,  and  it  ex- 
tended over  a  period 
which  included  the 
lifetime  of  Columbus, 
Galileo,  Dante,  Shaks- 
pere,  Michelangelo, 
Raphael  and  Leon- 
ardo da  Vinci.  Dur- 
ing this  time  the  art 
of  printing  was  in- 
vented, and  commerce 
between  nations  and 
countries  was  very 
active.  Different  peoples  learned  more  about  each  other,  and  the  apprecia- 
tion of  classic  architecture,  sculpture  and  ornament  became  widespread. 
The  great  artists  of  this  period  were  architects  and  decorators.  In  Rome, 
Michelangelo  designed  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's:  in  London  the.  cathedral  of 


Fig.  31.    St.  Peter's, 


HISTORIC   ORNAMENT 


297 


Fig.  32.    The  Louvre,  Paris 


From  Raphael, 


From  Raphael. 


298  ART  ED UCA  TION—  HIGH  SCHO OL 

St.  Paul  was  built  and  in  Paris  was  constructed  the  beautiful  art  gallery 
called  the  Louvre,  and  later,  the  Grand  Opera  House,  all  in  the  Renaissance 
style  (Figs.  31  and  32).  Both  lintel  and  arch  were  used  in  this  new  de- 
velopment and  columns  were  often  employed  as  a  decorative  feature,  rather 
than  as  part  of  the  construction.  Ornament  was  often  quite  naturalistic  in 
treatment,  and  bright  colors  were  well  distributed.  As  wealth  and  luxury 
increased,  the  moral  tone  of  the  people  declined  and  a  reflection  of  the  times 
was  seen  in  the  ornament  which  became  more  realistic  in  tendency,  and  less 
structural  in  its  character  (Fig.  33). 


Modern  Architecture  and  Ornament 

Influence  of  Environment,  We  have  seen  that  in  any  country  con- 
ditions of  climate  and  of  life  affect  the  architecture.  In  rainless  Egypt,  a 
flat  roof  was  possible ;  in  Greece,  we  find  the  roofs  built  with  a  slight  pitch 
or  slope.  As  we  go  farther  north,  this  slope  increases  until  we  have  the 
sharp  angle  of  the  Gothic  style,  so  rich  with  religious  association  and  with 
learning  that  we  still  feel  its  appropriateness  for  church  and  college  archi- 
tecture. We  find  it  adapted  to 
governmental  usage,  in  the  dignified 
and  impressive  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, in  London.  Many  of  the 
buildings  of  English  universities 
are  Gothic  in  style  and  in  America 
we  see  examples  in  the  various 
buildings  of  Chicago  University, 
and  in  Trinity  and  Grace  churches 
and  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral  in  New 
York  City.  A  modern  example 
of  the  French  Romanesque  style  is 
the  beautiful  Trinity  Church  in 
Boston,  with  appropriate  interior 
decorations  by  John  La  Farge 
(Fig.  34). 
. Classic  Styles.      In   Europe, 

Trinity  Church,  Boston  as    a    rCCoil  from    the    decadence    of 


/f\  p  *r 


HISTORIC   ORNAMENT 


299 


the  late  Renaissance,  a  revival  of  interest  in  classic  art  occurred  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  extended  in  some  degree,  to  this  country.  Belong- 
ing to  this  revival,  we  find  in  Paris,  the  Pantheon,  the  Arc  de  Triomphe,  and 
the  Church  of  the  Madeleine ;  in  London,  the  British  Museum ;  in  America, 
the  Capitol  at  Washington  (Fig.  35),  the  State  House  at  Albany,  and  the 
State  House  at  Boston.  The  Boston  Public  Library  and  the  Field  Colum- 
bian Museum  at  Chicago  (Fig.  36)  are  more  recent  examples  that  show  the 
influence  of  beautiful  classic  styles.  The  finest  dwellings  of  pre-revolu- 
tionary  times  echoed  this  Greek  revival,  creating  what  is  known  as  the 
Colonial  style.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  Mount  Vernon,  the  home  of 
Washington,  and  also  in  many  dwellings  built  in  New  England,  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia.  No  style  more  appropriately  em- 
bodies the  attributes  of  a  home  in  its  simplicity,  its  ample  proportions,  and 
in  its  effect  of  comfort  and  dignity.  , 


Fig.  35.    Capitol,  Washington 


soo 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  36.    Field  Colombian  Museum,  Chicago 

Steel  Construction.  There  is  as  yet  no  distinctly  American  archi- 
tecture, unless  we  except  the  commercial  office  building  with  its  twenty  and 
more  stories.  This  style  has  arisen  more  from  necessity  than  from  choice, 
in  order  to  meet  the  conditions  of  urban  life  in  the  congested  districts  of  our 
large  cities.  It  is,  in  its  way,  a  wonderful  exposition  of  the  American  ability 
to  overcome  obstacles  and  to  meet  a  perplexing  situation.  Cramped  for 
ground  space,  it  pushes  upward,  this  being  possible  with  the  modern  steel 
construction,  which,  while  comparatively  light,  is  very  strong,  rising  many 
stories  in  height  from  a  solid  foundation.  Each  story  is  supported  or  hung 
upon  the  steel  frame,  and  does  not  rest  upon  the  exterior  walls.  Heavy 
stone  ornament  is  usually  placed  near  the  base,  where  it  can  rest  upon 
the  foundations ;  while  above,  either  a  stone  or  terra-cotta  sheathing  is  used. 
In  architecture  this  style  of  building  presents  a  different  problem.  It  must 
have  many  windows  and  numerous  means  of  exit,  and  the  prismatic  shape 
cannot  be  greatly  changed  without  weakening  the  structure. 

Much   of  the  decoration  in  office  and  public  buildings  in  the  future 


HISTORIC   ORNAMENT 


301 


promises  to  be  expressed  in  iron 
more  than  in  any  other  material,  be- 
cause of  its  great  strength  and  the 
ease  with  which  it  can  be  made  a 
part  of  the  construction.  Iron  com- 
bined with  cement  may  develop 
great  decorative  possibilities. 

Mural  Decoration.  In  mural 
decorations  we  have  much  that  is 
notable,  such  as  the  work  of  William 
Hunt  upon  the  walls  of  the  State 
House  at  Albany ;  the  decorations 
in  the  Boston  Public  Library  by 
Sargent,  Abbey  and  Puvis  de  Cha- 
vannes ;  those  by  American  artists 
in  the  Congressional  Library  in 
Washington ;  those  in  the  State 
Capitol  at  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  and  in 
many  other  public  buildings. 

In  the  various  arts  and  crafts 
original    and    excellent    results    are 

seen  in  stained  glass,  tiles,  pottery,  wood  carving,  metal,  leather,  bookbind- 
ing, jewelry,  etc.  In  all  our  ornament  the  influence  of  the  Japanese  has 
been  felt  in  better  composition,  greater  nicety  of  execution,  quality  of  line 
and  simplicity  of  general  effect. 

Much  can  be  gained  through  the  study  of  historic  ornament,  not  only 
for  adaptation  to  practical  use,  but  as  a  means  of  general  culture.  We  learn 
to  see  what  styles  are  opposed  to  each  other  and  what  styles  are  in  harmony. 
We  cannot  combine,  for  instance,  the  Egyptian  and  Gothic,  or  the  Saracenic 
and  Gothic  and  produce  harmony  of  spirit  or  structure.  Through  the  study 
of  historic  ornament  we  read  the  story  of  the  people.  We  see  that  their 
best  art  expression  occurred  at  a  time  when  their  purpose  and  effort  were 
highest.     This  should  be  a  lesson  to  us  for  the  present  and  for  the  future. 


Fig.  37.    City  Investing  Company  Building, 
Broadway,  near  Cortland  St.,  New  York 

Photograph  by  Underwood  &  Underwood,  New  York 


302 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Fig.  38.     Mosaic  from  the  Congressional 

Library,  Washington 
Copyright,  1896,  by  Eliliu  Vedder ;  from  a  Copley  Print 
Copyright,  1897,  by  Curtis  &  Cameron,  Publishers,  Boston 


CHAPTER   VIII 

ART    HISTORY 

A  COMPLETE  Story  of  art  would  cover  the  attempts  of  individuals  of 
practically  all  races  in  all  ages  to  produce  things,  which,  to  quote  a  phrase  made 
familiar  by  the  English  artist,  William  Morris,  they  "  knew  to  be  useful  and 
believed  to  be  beautiful."  Every  object  fashioned  by  hand  or  with  the 
assistance  of  simple  machinery,  if  it  has  been  created  in  a  spirit  of  joy  and 
enthusiasm,  has,  of  necessity,  artistic  qualities. 

Although  the  general  term  Art  includes  many  arts  and  crafts  besides 
architecture,  sculpture  and  painting, —  since  things  of  the  humblest  useful- 
ness may  be  beautiful, —  these  three  arts,  which,  in  nearly  all  periods  have 
naturally  drawn  to  their  service  the  most  gifted  artists  of  the  time,  illustrate 
perfectly  the  principles  underlying  all  artistic  expression.  By  common  con- 
sent, therefore,  they  are  known  as  the  Fine  Arts,  and  individuals  who  excel 
in  them  are  regarded  as  equally  important  with  the  great  statesmen,  gen- 
erals, poets,  historians,  scientists  and  others  whom  mankind  especially  honors. 
Each  of  these  arts,  it  should  always  be  remembered,  is  useful  as  well  as 
beautiful, —  architecture  in  making  orderly  and  agreeable  what  would  other- 
wise be  nothing  but  shelter  from  the  elements  ;  painting  and  sculpture  in 
giving  added  cheerfulness,  spaciousness  and  variety  to  the  architect's  plans, 
at  the  same  time  serving  by  representation  of  actual  things  to  stimulate 
memory  and  imaginat,ion. 

Architecture  the  Fundamental  Art.  Architecture  is  in  many  respects 
the  most  important  of  the  fine  arts.  The  prime  physical  needs  of  mankind 
are  food,  clothing  and  shelter,  the  last  of  which  must  be  efficiently  served  by 
the  architect.  Much  more,  however,  than  protection  is  involved  in  archi- 
tecture, for  men  in  all  times  have  had  an  instinct  leading  them  to  beautify 
the  buildings  in  which  they  themselves  have  purposed  to  live  or  which  they 


304  ART  ED UCA  TION  —  HIGH  SCHO OL 

have  constructed  as  the  abodes  of  their  divinities.  Thus  every  historical 
period  has  produced  temples  and  palaces  as  its  finest  types  of  buildings. 

The  requirements  imposed  upon  builders  in  different  climates  and  civil- 
izations have  given  rise  to  differences  in  architectural  style.  The  character 
of  a  building,  if  it  is  good  architecture,  is  accommodated  to  the  needs  of  the 
people  who  are  to  use  it.  The  design  and  ornamentation  of  a  house  or  church 
in  a  cold  country,  where  steep  pitched  roofs  are  required  to  shed  the  snow, 
differ  necessarily  from  the  planning  and  decoration  of  a  structure  in  the 
tropics,  where  protection  from  heat  and  earthquake  must  first  be  considered. 
A  nation  devoted  to  hard  work  and  simple  living,  will  create  for  itself  an 
architectural  style  that  may  be  refined  and  beautiful,  but  which  will  certainly 
be  less  showy  than  that  prevailing  in  a  country  whose  people  are  luxurious 
and  pleasure-loving. 

Among  those  nations  and  at  those  times  in  which  life  was  fullest  and 
richest,  a  noble  architecture,  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  people,  has 
invariably  arisen.  Such  eras,  pre-eminently,  were  the  ages  of  Pericles  in 
Greece ;  of  the  good  emperors,  Titus,  Trajan,  Hadrian  and  the  Antonines  at 
Rome ;  the  Crusades  in  France,  Germany  and  England ;  the  Renaissance,  or 
classic  revival,  in  Italy  and  other  countries ;  and  again,  the  awakening  of  art 
in  France  in  the  nineteenth  century.  That  our  own  country  is  entering 
upon  a  period  in  which  it  will,  for  the  first  time,  have  a  truly  important 
national  architecture,  is  confidently  predicted  by  many  critics. 

Sculpture  and  Painting  as  related  to  Architecture.  Every  national 
school  of  sculpture  or  painting  has  been  the  result  of  the  employment  of 
artists  to  adorn  the  work  of  architects.  Not  every  age  of  notable  archi- 
tecture has  produced  both  sculpture  and  painting  of  equal  merit.  In  the 
best  period  of  Greek  art,  sculpture  was  somewhat  in  advance  of  painting, 
reaching,  in  fact,  an  excellence  that  has  never  since  been  surpassed.  The 
powerful  and  original  architecture  of  the  Roman  Empire  was  accompanied 
by  little  sculptural  or  pictorial  work  of  especial  merit.  The  erection  in  the 
Middle  Ages  of  the  marvellous  cathedrals  of  France  made  opportunities  for 
many  able  sculptors,  while  practically  the  only  painters  whose  work  could 
be  utilized  were  those  who  embodied  their  ideas  in  stained  glass.  The  era  of 
magnificent  architecture  in  Italy  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries 
was  one  in  which  there  appeared  the  chief  school  of  painters  the  world  has 


ART  HISTORY  305 

known,  as  well  as  of  sculptors  who  rank  as  inferior  only  to  the  Greeks.  The 
same  artistic  movement,  spreading  to  the  northern  countries  of  Europe,  pro- 
duced, particularly  in  Germany  and  the  Netherlands,  many  strong  painters 
and  fewer  sculptors.  The  intellectual  supremacy  of  Paris  in  the  nineteenth 
century  is  expressed  in  its  architecture,  complete  and  harmonious  beyond 
that  of  any  other  modern  capital.  During  the  same  century  a  body  of  the 
most  competent  professional  painters  of  Europe  practised  its  profession  in 
France,  and  in  the  later  decades  a  group  of  good  sculptors  arose.  In  Oriental 
countries,  and  particularly  among  the  Japanese,  for  many  centuries  a  highly 
artistic  people,  the  three  arts  have  risen  and  fallen  together. 

Our  Indebtedness  to  the  Ancients,  From  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  most  of  the  existing  methods  and  practices  of  the  three  allied  arts 
have  been  derived.  Architectural  construction  —  except  for  forms  recently 
made  possible  by  use  of  steel  framing  —  is  of  two  kinds:  that  in  which  the 
walls  and  roof  of  a  building  are  made  by  joining  upright  posts  or  columns 
with  cross-pieces,  and  that  in  which  one  block  of  material  rests  upon  another 
block  in  the  form  of  an  arch.  The  first  of  these  two  types  of  construction 
was  brought  to  practical  perfection  by  the  Greeks ;  the  second,  so  far  at  least 
as  the  round  arch  is  concerned,  by  the  Romans. 

Every  modern  sculptor  looks  for  information  and  inspiration  to  the  com- 
paratively small  number  of  statues  and  sculptured  reliefs  which  time  has 
spared  from  the  days  of  the  best  Greek  art.  Even  painting,  although  no 
pictures  of  considerable  value  have  survived,  is  known  to  have  been  brought 
by  the  Greeks  for  the  first  time  in  any  country  to  a  state  of  more  than  ordi- 
nary excellence.  Again,  most  of  the  so-called  minor  or  applied  arts  were 
first  perfected  in  Greece  or  in  Italy.  Such  achievements  were  the  outgrowth 
of  profound  professional  knowledge.  In  Greece,  men  first  learned  the  art  of 
drawing  —  or  designing,  which  is  really  the  same  thing  —  and  their  technical 
skill  gave  them  mastery  of  all  the  arts  which  they  practised. 

The  Originality  of  Greek  Art.  Historians  agree,  in  citing  as  a  reason 
why  the  Greeks  were  an  art-loving  nation,  that  they  were  a  lofty-minded  and 
physically  fine  race  that  had  settled  in  a  varied  and  beautiful  country  and 
had  there  developed  the  institutions  of  a  free  people.  A  dispute  exists, 
indeed,  as  to  the  extent  to  which  the  artists  of  the  Greek  cities  were 
indebted    to   the    craftsmen   of    earlier    civilizations  —  specifically    to    the 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Colossi  of  Amenophis  III,  Thebes 


Egyptians,  Assyrians  and  Phoenicians.  Seafaring  men  and  merchants  from 
Grecian  cities  unquestionably,  long  before  'j'jG  b.  c,  the  date  of  the  first 
Olympiad  from  which  the  Greeks  reckoned  their  chronology,  visited  the 
lands  across  the  Mediterranean  and  saw  in  Egypt  the  pyramids,  temples 
and  rock-hewn  tombs,  the  gigantic  sculptured  and  pictorial  decorations, 
some  of  which  are  still  preserved,  or  again,  in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  vast  cities  with  buildings  of  sun-dried  brick  bearing  bas-reliefs 

which  depict  the  exploits  of  Assyrian 
monarchs.  After  witnessing  such  won- 
ders they  may,  no  doubt,  have  wished  to 
convert  their  own  rude  buildings  into 
magnificent  architecture  and  to  adorn 
these  with  sculptures  and  paintings.  Yet 
in  fulfilling  the  wish  they  certainly  did 
not  to  any  considerable  extent  imitate 
the  strange,  grotesque  creations  of  the 
older  lands.     Greek  art,  even  in  its  crude 


ASSYKIAN    BaS-KELIEF 


ART  HISTORY 


307 


ttmxiQi 
j^uuuuuuum 


TUSCAN,    OR    ROMAN    DORIC 

FROM  THE  COLISEUM,  ROME 


Doric  Capital— Pakthebon. 


beginnings,  shows  that  the  effort  of  the  artists  was  always 
to  be  cheerful,  orderly,  and  free  from  exaggeration  or 
eccentricity.  These  characteristics  are  prominent  in  all 
their  arts,  literary  as  well  as  graphic. 

Greek  architecture  very  early  became  well  propor- 
tioned, symmetrical  and  graceful.  The  first  buildings 
were  of  wood,  oftentimes  with  tall  shafts  of  timber  con- 
nected at  the  top  by  beams,  forming  porches  or  porti- 
cos. Out  of  these  wooden  pillars  were  evolved  the 
columns  of  stone  that  are  so  prominent  an  element  in 
all  classic  architecture ;  the  unadorned  Doric,  surmounted 
by  a  square  tile  or  abacus,  resting  under  the  architrave 
or  principal  horizontal  beam  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
building;  the  Ionic,  with  scroll-like  capital;  and  the 
Corinthian,  with  capital  of  the  conventionalized  leaves  of 
the  acanthus,  or  Grecian  thistle.  In  later  days  two  other 
kinds  of  columns  were  employed :  the  composite,  a  com- 
bination of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian,  and  the  Tuscan,  a 
variety  of  the  Roman  Doric  with  unfluted  shaft.  Each  of 
these  five  types,  or  architectural  orders,  as  they  are  called, 
is  in  common  use  today,  and  may  be  seen  in  public  and 
private  buildings  of  every  modern  city.     In  this  country 


laPiE  or  mil  «fTtROi 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Metopes  from  Temple  at  Selinus 


we  have  Corinthian  capi- 
tals on  the  Capitol  at 
Washington,  the  Ionic  on 
the  Treasury  Department, 
the  Doric  on  the  Patent 
Ofifice.  Such  examples 
could,  of  course,  be  multi- 
plied indefinitely. 

The  Greeks,  in  con- 
structing- of  marble  or 
other  material,  either 
temples  for  their  gods  or 
structures  for  their  own 
uses,  employed  the  archi- 
tectural orders  with  ever- 
increasing  refinement  of  proportions  and  details.  Knowing  the  diameter  of 
the  base  of  one  of  the  columns,  a  clever  architect  could  —  and  can  —  work 
out  the  dimensions  of  a  whole  building  by  rule  and  formula.  The  delicate 
accuracy  with  which  these  relations  were  established,  along  with  almost 
numberless  little  intentional  variations  from  mathematical  exactness,  is  held 
to  be  proof  of  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  the  Greeks  to  the  beautiful.  The 
ruins  of  such  temples  as  those  at  Selinus  in  Sicily  (which  was  a  Greek 
city),  at  ^gina,  on  the  island  of  ^gina  near  Athens,  and  at  Bassse,  in 
Arcadia,  still  give  abundant  instruction  and  inspiration  to  architects. 

The  Parthenon  at  Athens.  But  the  Parthenon,  or  temple  of  the 
goddess,  Athene,  stands,  though  in  ruins,  as  the  finest  relic  of  classic  archi- 
tecture. It  was  erected  on  the  Acropolis,  a  rocky  height  commanding  the 
city  of  Athens,  in  the  stirring  days  when  Greece  was  reconstructing  the 
cities  that  had  been  demolished  during  the  Persian  invasion.  Built  in  accord- 
ance with  plans  by  Ictinos  and  with  the  co-operation  of  Pheidias,  the  lead- 
ing sculptor  of  the  age  of  Pericles,  it  was  completed  about  437  b.  c.  Down 
to  1687  it  was  in  a  comparatively  good  state  of  preservation,  but  an  explosion 
at  that  date  of  some  barrels  of  gunpowder  which  the  Turks,  who  were  hold- 
ing the  city  of  Athens  against  an  invading  force  of  Venetians,  had  placed 
within  its  walls,  did  irreparable  damage  to  the  beautiful  edifice. 


ART  HISTORY 


The  Acropolis  at  Athens 


Early    Greek    Sculpture. 

Remarkable  as  the  architecture 
of  the  Greeks  was,  the  nation 
reached  as  high,  perhaps  even 
higher,  achievements  in  the  art 
of  sculpture.  At  all  events  the 
growth  of  the  two  arts  was  on 
similar  lines.  Car\dng  of  rude 
figures  in  wood  was  an  early 
mode  of  adorning  the  temples. 
Later,  the  use  of  marble,  which 
was  found  in  Greece  in  almost 
unlimited  quantity  and  of  super- 
lative quality,  made  rapid  improvement  of  the  art  possible.  About  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century  b.  c.  methods  of  casting  in  bronze  and  of 
inlaying  gold  and  ivory  on  a  wooden  framework  were  invented.  Thereafter, 
through  a  line  of  sculptors,  some  of  whose  names  have  come  down  to  us,  the 
art  advanced  to  essential  perfection  in 
the  fifth  century. 

Two  main  circumstances  made 
abundant  work  for  the  Greek  sculptors. 
The  first  was  the  demand  for  representa- 
tions of  mythological  subjects  suitable 
for  the  adornment  of  temples  and  other 
important  buildings.  The  second  was 
the  custom  that  had  arisen  of  honoring 
the  winners  of  victories  at  the  Olympic 
and  other  games  with  statues  which,  as 
far  as  possible,  were  actual  likenesses  of 
the  persons  depicted.  Between  these  two 
kinds  of  sculpture  there  was  a  certain 
opposition,  though  the  difference  in  prin- 
ciples has  often  been  overstated.  The  re- 
ligious and  decorative  art  has  been  called 
ideal;  the  representative  art,  realistic.  Discus  Thrower -mvron 


310 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


From  the  East  Pediment  of  the  Parthenon 


Each  type  had  its 
adherents.  Myron,  a 
bronze  founder,  who 
made  elaborate  studies 
of  athletes,  and  whose 
spirited  Discus  Thrower, 
in  the  shape  of  a  late 
copy,  is  very  familiar, 
was  the  leader  of  the 
realistic  school. 

Pheidias,  the 
Greatest  of  Greek 
Sculptors.  Of  the 
idealistic  sculptors,  by 
far  the  ablest  and  the- 
most  famous  of  all  times  was  Pheidias,  an  Athenian  by  birth,  whom  Pericles, 
when  he  entered  upon  his  celebrated  presidency  in  444  b.  c,  made  superin- 
tendent of  the  whole  work  of  adorning  the  Acropolis  with  a  group  of  temples 
and  their  approaches.     In  this  position  the  sculptor,  already  famed  for  his 

accomplishments,  directed  the  production 
of  the  noblest  series  of  sculptural  works 
ever  executed  anywhere. 

Nothing,  to  be  sure,  that  is  definitely 
known  to  have  come  from  Pheidias'  hand 
has  been  preserved,  but  the  very  beauti- 
ful statues  and  high  and  low  reliefs  of 
the  Parthenon,  many  of  which  were 
carried  from  Athens  to  England  by 
Lord  Elgin  in  18  12  and  are  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  were  all  executed  by 
sculptors  supervised  by  him,  and  many 
of  the  works  no  doubt  received  his 
personal  attention.  Among  statues  by 
Pheidias  that  have  been  lost  but  that 
had  world-wide  fame  among  the  ancients 

Head  of  Zeus  from  Mvlasa  " 


ART  HISTORY 


were  several  representations  of  the  goddess  Athene  at  Athens  and  one  of 
the  Panhellenic  Zeus  at  Olympia,  the  scene  of  the  national  games.  An- 
original  marble  now  in  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts  is  believed  to  be  a 
copy,  by  an  unknown  sculptor,  of  the  head  of  Pheidias'  Zeus. 

Pheidias  was  an  idealist  in  the  sense  that  he  sought  not  so  much  to 
present  to  the  world  the  carefully  studied  likenesses  of  human  beings  — 
though  he  had  abundant  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  the  human  form  —  as 
to  embody  his  conceptions  of  the  various  divinities  worshipped  by  his  fellow 
countrymen. 

Other  Sculptors  of  the  best  Period.  At  the  same  time  with  and 
immediately  after  Pheidias,  many  sculptors  executed,  each  in  his  own  way, 
works  of  which  the  few  remaining  examples  are  among  the  most  valued  of 
all  art  treasures.  Among  such  men  were  Polycleitos  of  Argos  ;  Praxiteles, 
whose  Hermes  with  the  infant  Dionysos 
is  perhaps  the  finest  of  all  surely  authen- 
ticated Greek  sculptures  ;  Lysippus,  the 
only  sculptor  by  whom  Alexander  the 
Great  would  be  represented,  and  Chares 
of  Lindos,  designer  of  the  colossal  bronze 
statue,  105  feet  high,  which  for  many 
years  stood  at  the  entrance  of  the  chief 
harbor  of  the  island  of  Rhodes,  and 
which  centuries  later  was  carried  away 
in  pieces  by  Arabs  for  the  sake  of  the 
valuable  metal. 

In  spite  of  increasing  skill  and  un- 
derstanding of  technical  processes  among 
Greek  sculptors,  the  art  gradually  degen- 
erated with  the  degeneration  of  the 
national  life.  The  artists,  more  and  more 
as  a  concession  to  public  taste,  gave  their 
attention  to  representing  sensational  and 
even  revolting  subjects,  often  in  a  spec- 
tacular and  repulsive  manner.  During 
what  is  known  as  the  Hellenistic  age  of 


.■d  the  infant  dlonysos- 
Praxiteles 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Greek  Vase 


sculpture,  comprising  the  centuries  after 
Greece  had  ceased  to  be  a  nation  and  had 
become  subject  to  foreigners,  very  Httle 
meritorious  sculpture  was  produced. 

Painting  Among  the  Greeks.  The 
art  of  painting  in  color  may,  as  some  critics 
believe,  have  been  nearly  as  highly  devel- 
oped as  sculpture  in  ancient  Greece. 
Nothing  of  the  art,  however,  except 
almost  innumerable  paintings  in  flat  tones 
on  pottery,  has  survived  to  this  time.  Our 
knowledge,  therefore,  is  confined  practi- 
cally to  the  names  of  a  number  of  painters, 
about  several  of  whom  pretty  anecdotes 
are  recorded,  and  to  literary  descriptions, 
not  usually  trustworthy,  of  their  works. 
Among  the  most  celebrated  painters  were  Polygnotos  of  Thasos  (415  to  455 
B.  c),  whose  representations  of  mythical  events  adorned  many  public  buildings 
in  Athens  and  other  cities ;  Zeuxis  and  Parrhasios,  rival  realists  about  whom 
is  told  the  well-known  story  that  the  one  rendered  a  study  of  grapes  so 
naturally  that  birds  came  and  pecked  at  them,  while  Parrhasios  painted  a  cur- 
tain which  deceived  even  Zeuxis  himself ;  and  Apelles,  the  most  renowned  of 
all  painters  of  antiquity,  a  favorite  of  Alexander  the  Great  and  universally 
esteemed  for  his  allegorical  representations.  Apelles  had  a  few  worthy  suc- 
cessors, but  the  art  of  painting  steadily  declined  during  the  Hellenistic  period, 
as  did  all  the  arts. 

Architecture  the  Characteristic  Art  of  the  Romans.  Although 
the  Romans  had  practically  no  painting  or  sculpture  of  their  own,  being  con- 
tent to  hire  Greek  craftsmen  to  perform  what  they  regarded  as  menial  labor, 
they  created  an  architecture  which,  although  it  resembled  that  of  the  Greeks 
in  its  details,  was  thoroughly  original  in  spirit.  The  difference  may  perhaps 
be  expressed  by  saying  that  the  Romans  conceived  of  architecture  primarily 
as  an  engineering  proposition. 

The  exquisite  architectural  forms  derived  from  the  best  period  of 
Greek  art,  together  with  the  round  arch  which  had  been  extensively  used 


ART  HISTORY 


313 


I&i«lltt|f 


by  the  Etruscans  in  the 
section  of  Italy  imme- 
diately to  the  north  of 
Rome,  were  tastefully 
applied  to  almost  innum- 
erable useful  projects 
—  to  the  building  of 
city  walls,  sewers  and 
bridges,  to  aqueducts  for 
bringing  pure  water 
across  the  plains  from 
distant  mountains,  to  the  koman  Culu^m;!  m 

public  baths  which  played  an  important  part  in  Roman  living,  and  to  outdoor 
amphitheatres,  such  as  the  celebrated  Colosseum,  the  remains  of  which,  cover- 
ing about  five  acres  of  ground,  are  still  a  landmark  of  the  Imperial  City.  Two 
famous  and  beautiful  examples  of  Roman  memorial  architecture  are  the  Tri- 
umphal Arch  of  Constantine  at  Rome  and  the  Arch  of  Trajan  at  Beneventum. 

A  prominent  characteristic  of  the  Roman,  which  was  manifested  in  his 
plan  of  government  as  well  as  in  the  style  of  his  spoken  and  written  language, 
was  his  love  of  antithesis  —  of  balancing  one  element  against  another  and 
thus  securing  strong  contrasts.  This  same  liking  has  made  his  architecture 
well  balanced,  formal  and  very  usable.  Modern  architects  and  engineers 
acknowledge  indebtedness  to  their  Roman  predecessors.  Particularly  in  the 
United  States,  where  many  large  public  works  of  an  engineering  nature  have 
been  installed,  the  principles  of  Roman  architecture  are  in  constant  application. 
The  span  of  Cabin  John's  Bridge  near  Washington,  the  arched  High  Bridge 
over  the  Harlem  in  New  York  City,  Echo  Bridge  on  the  Charles  near  Boston 
and  many  approaches  to  State  capitols  and  other  public  buildings  illustrate 
the  ancient  axiom  that  "all  roads  lead  to  Rome." 

The  only  department  of  sculpture  in  which  the  artists  working  under 
the  Romans  excelled,  was  in  portraiture.  Bronze  and  marble  likenesses  of 
emperors  and  other  distingiiished  personages  which  have  been  preserved,  show 
usually  a  right  understanding  of  the  character  of  the  sitter,  good  knowledge 
of  the  facts  of  anatomy,  and  appreciation  of  picturesque  effect.  No  other 
remarkable  achievements  in  sculpture  or  painting  are  to  be  noted  either 


314 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


under  the  Republic  or  the  Empire,  though 
the  uncovering  of  the  city  of  Pompeii, 
buried  in  79  a.  d.  by  an  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius, has  revealed  much  art  of  moderate 
merit. 

Romanesque  Architecture.  The 
fine  arts  degenerated  during  and  after  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  Empire,  ■ —  archi- 
tecture to  a  rather  less  extent  than  the 
other  arts,  for  even  in  the  disturbed  cen- 
turies, the  Christian  Church  continued  to 
build  churches  and  monasteries.  The 
style  of  architecture  that  was  developed 
from  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Constan- 
tine  (about  328  a.  d.)  to  the  death  of 
Gregory  the  Great,  in  604,  and  that  was 
PoRTKAii  lUsT  OF  vicusTus  coutinucd  for  several    centuries  more,  is 

known  as  the  Romanesque,  a  name  in- 
dicating its  Roman  origin.  The  builders  made  much  use  of  the  round  arch, 
and  of  extremely  massive  walls  and  towers.  Meantime,  in  the  eastern  division 
of  the  Roman  Empire  of  which  Constantinople  was  the  capital,  down  to  its 

capture  by  the  Turks 
in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, another  archi- 
tecture, the  most  ap- 
parent characteristic 
of  which  was  the  ex- 
tensive use  of  the 
dome,  grew  into  con- 
siderable splendor. 
This  style  is  called 
Byzantine,  from  By- 
zantium, the  ancient 
name  of  Constanti- 
nople.     The    most 

Church  of  Santa  Sophia,  Constantinople 


ART  HISTORY 


515 


famous  example  is  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  in  the  Turkish  capital,  a  vast 
structure  consecrated  more  than  thirteen  centuries  ago  by  the  Roman  em- 
peror Justinian.  The  Romanesque  style  was  at  one  time  very  popular  in  the 
United  States.     A  notable  example  is  Trinity  Church,  Boston  (page  298). 

The  Gothic  Period.  In  western  Europe,  from  the  seventh  to  the 
fifteenth  centuries  during  the  Middle  Ages  which  succeeded  the  dark  ages, 
there  arose  and  flourished  a  beautiful  and  logical  type  of  architecture  known  as 
the  Gothic,  from  the  name  of  the  Germanic  invaders  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Especially  after  the  year  1000  a.  d.,  at  which  time  it  was  generally  believed 
the  world  would  come  to  an  end,  a  mania  for  building  seemed  to  seize  all 
Christian  lands,  and  many  great  religious  structures  were  reared. 

The  distinguishing  marks  of  Gothic  architecture,  as  found  in  churches  and 
cathedrals  of  France,  Germany,  Italy,  Spain  and  England,  are  its  lightness  and 
its  aspiring  qualities.  The  builders  departed  from  the  heavy  massive  style 
of  the  Romanesque  period,  using  pointed  as  well  as  round  arches  and  seeking 
to  secure  lofty  towers,  spacious  interiors  and  broad  window  spaces,  all  with 
the  very  minimum  of  building  material 
needed  to  accomplish  the  desired  result. 
It  was  a  frank  architectural  style,  one  in 
which  every  element  of  the  construction 
was  made  to  show  its  use.  Great  variety 
in  detail  resulted  from  the  fact  that  the 
architects  were  guided  by  few  of  the  fixed 
rules  that  had  prevailed  in  Greek  and 
Roman  architecture,  and  designed  an 
ornamentation  based  on  all  manner  of 
natural  and  grotesque  forms.  Gothic 
building  reached  its  perfection  in  French 
structures  erected  for  religious  purposes 
in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries. 

Gothic  architecture  has  been  very 
generally  employed  in  church  building 
in  this  country.  A  familiar  structure  is 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  in  New  York 
City,    which    illustrates    many    of    the  notre  dame,  Paris 


316 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


details  of  the  best  Middle  Age  buildings.  Trinity  Church,  New  York,  is  also 
Gothic,  and  the  great  pile  of  the  cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  on  Morn- 
ingside  Heights,  which  will  require  half  a  century  to  build,  represents  a  com- 
bination of  Gothic  and  Romanesque.  The  buildings  of  the  United  States 
military  academy  at  West  Point  are  being  remodeled  in  accordance  with 
Gothic  designs. 

Gothic  Sculpture  and  Painting.  Gothic  edifices  of  the  best  type 
contained  so  much  window  space  that  they  offered  very  little  opportunity  for 
display  of  mural  paintings.  The  art  of  stained,  or  painted,  glass,  however, 
which  began  to  be  practised  about  800,  came  to  be  regarded  as  an  essential 
part  of  church  decoration.  Many  windows  of  the  later  Middle  Ages  still 
furnish  models  of  exquisite  color  and  design.  This  art  is  one  of  especial 
interest  to  Americans,  since  our  workers  in  stained  glass  have  come  to  surpass 
those  of  any  other  modern  nation  and  to  rival  the  Middle  Age  artisans. 

Among  the  slender  columns,  piers  and  buttresses  of  Gothic  churches 
many  niches  or  recesses  were  necessarily  created,  and  the  custom  grew  up  of 
filling  these  with  sculptured  figures  of  angels,  saints  or  important  dignitaries 

of  the  church.  Great  wealth  of  architect- 
ural ornament  was  applied  at  the  same 
time  to  both  interior  and  exterior  parts  of 
the  churches.  Sculpture  consequently 
reached  a  larger  importance  than  it  had 
had  since  the  centuries  in  which  it  flour- 
ished in  ancient  Greece.  Such  works  as 
those  in  the  cathedrals  of  Rheims,  Amiens 
and  Paris  in  France  and  of  Strasburg  and 
Freiburg  in  Germany,  even  though  the 
names  of  the  sculptors  have  generally  not 
been  preserved,  are  to  be  accounted  hardly 
inferior  to  the  sculpture  with  which  the 
finest  Greek  temples  were  decorated. 

Italy  and  Gothic  Art.  The  Gothic 
architecture  and  sculpture  which  were 
accepted  for  a  time  by  every  country  of 
western  Europe  made  less  impression  upon 


Choir  Stalls,  Cathedral  of  Amiens 

From  Stereograph,  Copyright,  1907,  by  Underwood 

&  Underwood,  N.  Y. 


ART  HISTORY  317 

Italy  than  upon  any  other.  Rome  continued  to  be  devoted  to  the  Romanesque 
during  all  the  Gothic  centuries,  and  Ravenna,  for  a  long  time  a  thriving  city 
situated  near  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  was  proud  of  an  art  somewhat 
resembling  that  of  the  nations  of  western  Asia.  In  other  Italian  cities, 
although  forms  of  Gothic  were  employed  in  both  religious  and  civil  buildings, 
they  were  quite  different  in  spirit  from  corresponding  structures  in  the 
countries  to  the  north  of  the  Alps.  They  were  more  massive,  with  smaller 
windows,  and  offered  greater  expanses  of  wall  space  for  decoration  with  illus- 
trated lessons  from  the  Bible  or  with  scenes  from  the  history  of  the  church. 

The  fact  of  this  architectural  difference,  which  was  due  both  to  the 
Italian  climate  \\\\.\\  its  abundance  of  strong  sunlight  and  to  the  traditions  of 
the  older  Roman  style,  may  have  accounted  for  the  beginning  of  the  Italian 
school  of  painting,  which  finally  surpassed  every  other  school. 

Mural  Paintings  and  Easel  Pictures.  In  Italy,  at  all  events,  the 
ancient  art  of  figure  painting  on  wall  surfaces,  or  mural  painting,  as  it  is 
called,  which  had  been  all  but  lost  in  the  dark  ages,  was  gloriously  re\wed  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  The  favorite  method  up  to  this  time  had  involved 
the  use  of  "fresco,"  whereby  carefully  ground  colors  were  laid  on  wet  plaster 
into  which  they  soaked  and  spread.  Fresco  is  still  employed  in  the  decora- 
tion of  buildings.  One  of  the  objections  to  it  is  that  there  is  no  chance  to 
correct  mistakes  or  improve  on  the  original  design.  Once  on  the  wall  the 
color  is  there  to  stay. 

Another  method  of  the  painter's  art  came  into  popularity  about  1350. 
Panel,  or  easel  pictures,  hung  on  the  wall  instead  of  being  painted  upon  it, 
began  to  be  commonly  produced.  These  were  executed  at  first  in  dis- 
temper, a  preparation  consisting  of  colors  mixed  with  size  or  weak  glue  ;  but 
later  it  was  discovered  that  oil  furnished  a  more  convenient  medium  in  which 
to  grind  the  pigments. 

Encouraged  by  a  widespread  popular  demand  for  the  decoration  of 
buildings,  a  succession  of  distinguished  painters  arose,  each  of  whom  con- 
tributed something  to  the  sum  total  of  professional  knowledge  and  skill. 
The  Italian  master,  as  a  rule,  had  pupils  or  apprentices  in  his  shop  who 
learned  all  that  he  could  teach,  and  who  later  often  improved  upon  his 
instruction.  In  the  chief  cities  of  Italy,  furthermore,  there  grew  up 
painters'  guilds,  which  gave  the  artists  the  benefit  of  co-operative  effort. 


818 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


The  Revival  of  Learning.  The  Renaissance,  or  revival  of  learning, 
which  developed  in  Italy  somewhat  before  the  be^nning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury and  reached  its  height  about  a  century  later,  was  very  helpful  to  the  art 
of  painting.  A  revolt  from  the  ignorance  of  the  Middle  Ages  led  men  to 
renewed  study  of  the  almost  forgotten  literature  and  art  of  the  Greeks.  In- 
terest in  science  was  aroused  at  the  same  time.  Great  trading  towns  had 
grown  up.  Connecting  a  number  of  cities  of  northern  Italy,  such  as  Veniccy 
Milan  and  Florence,  with  the  Rhine  Valley  was  a  definite  route  across  the 
Alps,  traversed  by  wandering  merchants.  Along  this  route,  in  Italy,  Ger- 
many and  the  Low  Countries,  the  art  of  painting  as  it  exists  at  this  day  was 
first  developed. 

The  Early  Painters.  The  beginning  of  the  revival  of  the  painter's 
art  dates  back  into  the  days  of  chivalry.  Even  Italy  was  still  in  the  Middle 
Ages  at  the  time  when  Cimabue,  born  in  Florence,  in  1240,  painted  his 
famous  picture  of  the  "Madonna  Enthroned,"  now  in  the  Florentine  church 

of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  which  entitled 
him  to  be  called  •'  the  father  of  modern 
painting."  His  work  is  now  remarkable 
chiefly  because  the  artist,  though  aiming, 
as  the  elder  painters  aimed,  to  produce  an 
interesting  pattern  of  lines  and  tints,  de- 
parted from  their  conventional  practice  in 
rendering  his  figures,  which  he  tried,  even 
if  not  very  successfully,  to  draw  in  a  natural 
life-like  manner. 

Cimabue' s  great  successor,  Giotto 
(1 266-1 337),  was  a  contemporary  of  the 
most  eloquent  exponent  of  mediaeval  phil- 
osophy, the  poet  Dante,  whose  portrait 
indeed  is  one  of  the  most  cherished  works 
preserved  from  the  period.  Giotto,  like 
most  of  the  Italian  artists,  was  many-sided 
in  his  talents,  being  a  competent  archi- 
tect as  well  as  painter.  His  Campanile, 
or    bell    tower,    in    Florence,    illustrates 


[adonna  by  Cimabue  in  Santa  Maria 
Novella,  Florence 


ART  HISTORY 


819 


excellently  the  beautiful  way  in  which 
the  Italians  selected  such  of  the  Gothic 
principles  as  suited  their  requirements. 
As  a  painter,  Giotto  studied  the  human 
figure  carefully  and  sought  to  convey  a 
sense  of  motion  and  vitality  in  many  of 
his  pictures. 

A  succession  of  painters  followed 
at  Florence,  then  one  of  the  most  pros, 
perous  and  intellectual  of  Italian  cities, 
amongst  them  Fra  Angelico  (1387- 
1455),  an  inspired  monk,  whose  works 
are  esteemed  for  their  spiritual  character ; 
Massaccio  (1401-1428),  whose  pictures, 
filled  with  evidences  of  striving  after 
exact  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  anatomy, 
are  nevertheless  extremely  poetic  and 
refined;  Sandro  Botticelli  (1447-15  15), 
one  of  the  most  impressionable  characters 
of  his  time,  a  follower  in  late  life  of 
the  reforming  monk,  Savonarola,  and, 
throughout,  a  painter  of  exquisite  works 
that  bear  traces  of  his  early  training  as 
a  goldsmith. 

In  such  a  painting  as  Botticelh's 
"■  Coronation  of  the  Madonna "  in  the 
Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence,  the  striving  of 
the  fifteenth  century  Florentine  artists 
after  the  beauty  of  well-studied  form  is 
epitomized.  The  grouping  of  the  five 
figures  within  the  circle  is  such  that  the 
attention  is  necessarily  led  to  the  radiant 
Christ  Child.  Every  other  part  of  the 
composition  has,  at  the  same  time,  been 
made  interesting.     The   three  youthful 


Painting  of  Uante  by  Giotto 


Campanile  by  Giotto 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Coronation  op  the  Madonna  by  Sandro  Botticelli 


heads,  which,  together 
with  the  hands  and 
arms  above  Mary's 
head,  make  a  circle 
within  the  circle, 
are  all  beautifully 
wrought.  Even  in  the 
black-and-white  repro- 
duction something  of 
the  richness  and  splen- 
dor appropriate  to  a 
coronation  is  to  be 
observed. 

The  Venetians. 
Meantime,  Venice,  the 
wealthiest  of  Italian 
trading  cities,  situated 
on  a  group  of  islands 
at  the  head  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  was  not 
far  behind  Florence 
in  devotion  to  the  fine 
arts.  Leaders  of  the 
Venetian  school  were 
the  Bellini  family,  the 
first  member  of  which 


to  be  distinguished  as  a  painter  was  Jacopo  BeUini  (i  395-1470),  whose  even 
more  famous  sons  were  Gentile  and  Giovanni.  The  latter  of  these,  in  par- 
ticular, who  painted  noble,  dignified  works  of  church  decoration,  has  some- 
times been  proclaimed  to  be  the  greatest  of  all  decorative  painters.  One  of 
his  younger  contemporaries  w^as  Carpaccio,  a  painter  whose  work  appears 
strikingly  modern.  The  figure  of  a  boy  playing  a  mandolin,  a  detail  of  a 
picture  in  the  Venice  Academy,  is  one  of  the  most  popular  works  of  the 
early  Renaissance. 

Rival  Schools  of  Painting.      Groups  of  artists  appeared  in  other  Italian 


ART  HISTORY 


321 


cities  also,  as  in 
Siena,  Perugia,  Fer- 
rara,  Bologna  and 
Padua.  The  rivalry 
among  these  was 
doubtless  as  potent 
a  cause  of  artistic 
improvement  as  ri- 
valry among  modern 
schools  and  colleges 
has  been  of  athletic 
development.  Cities 
often  competed  for 
the  services  of  a 
master  of  painting 
or  sculpture.  Thus 
the  Duke  of  Milan 
for  many  years  enter- 
tained one  of  the 
most  remarkable 
men  of  the  period  of 

the  awakening,  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1452-15 19),  a  Florentine  by  birth, 
described  on  a  monument  erected  in  his  honor  in  Milan  as  the  "  Renewer  of 
the  Arts  and  Sciences."  Leonardo,  more  than  perhaps  any  other  man, 
embodied  the  eager,  inquiring  disposition  of  the  Renaissance.  He  took  such 
interest  in  engineering  projects,  mrathematics,  natural  history  and  kindred 
subjects  that  he  accomplished  less  in  painting  than  might  have  been  expected 
from  a  man  of  his  wonderful  talents.  His  is,  nevertheless,  regarded  as  one 
of  the  foremost  names  in  the  history  of  art.  His  "  Last  Supper,"  now  prac- 
tically in  a  state  of  ruin  on  the  walls  of  a  convent  in  Milan,  and  the  portrait 
of  Mona  Lisa  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris  have  been  made  very  well  known  through 
popular  reproductions.  The  latter  work  is  one  upon  which  the  painter  spent 
years  of  effort,  and  which  he  left  unfinished.  The  technical  reasons  for  the 
fascination  which  it  has  exercised  upon  many  generations  are  to  be  sought  in 
the  delicate  blending  of  light  and  shade,  in  the  skill  with  which  the  individual 


Boy  Playing  Mandolin,  by  Carpaccio 


322 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


MoNA  Lisa,  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci 


Moses,  by  Michelangelo 


character  of  the  head  and  hands  has  been  rendered,  and  in  the  suggestivencss 
of  the  incomplete  background.  Withal,  the  whole  picture  seems  to  be  filled 
with  indescribable  sentiment  and  mystery. 

Raphael  and  Michelangelo.  Leonardo's  reputation  was  somewhat 
overshadowed  in  his  own  time  by  that  of  two  other  Florentine  artists,  Michel- 
angelo, whose  surname  was  Buonarroti  (1475-1564),  and  Raphael  Sanzio 
(1483-1520).  These  names  are  generally  considered  the  greatest  in  the 
history  of  Italian  art.  Each  of  the  men  had  personal  peculiarities  which  his- 
torians have  liked  to  set  in  contrast,  but  they  were  alike  in  giving  adequate 
expression  to  the  spirit  of  the  age. 

Michelangelo  was  versatile,  energetic  and  industrious;  successful  in 
sculpture,  architecture  and  literature,  to  each  of  which  he  applied  himself  with 
enthusiasm  and  with  full  confidence  in  his  powers.  In  his  long  lifetime  he 
executed  a  series  of  grandiose  statues  which,  though  quite  different  in  con- 
ception, came  near  to  rivaling  the  works  of  the  Greeks,  both  in  understanding 


ART  HISTORY 


323 


Delphic  Sibyl,  by  Michelangelo 


of  anatomy  and  in  expression  of  sublime  attitudes.  His  "  Moses  "  is  one  of 
tlie  most  famous  sculptural  works  in  the  world.  Representing  the  prophet 
seated,  it  gives  by  means  of  the  largeness  of  his  body  and  limbs  and  the  firm 
poise  of  the  long  bearded  head  a  sense  of  the  personal  power  necessary  to 
lead  a  nation  out  of  bondage. 

Michelangelo's  painting  was  only  slightly  inferior  to  his  sculpture. 
Summoned  in  1508  to  paint  the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  in  the  Vatican 
at  Rome  he  produced  decorations  of  astonishing  invention  and  sublimity. 
Among  these,  the  representations  of  the  Delphic  and  Cumaean  sibyls  have 
been  made  particularly  familiar  through  reproduction. 

Michelangelo  was  also  a  skilled  architect  and  engineer  to  whom  the 
important  work  of  fortifying  both  Rome  and  Florence  was  entrusted.  His 
career,  though  saddened  by  infirmities  of  temper,  was  uniformly  fortunate,  so 
far  as  artistic  achievement  could  make  it  so. 

Raphael,  unquestionably  the  most  popular  of  all  painters,  is  generally  held 
to  stand  at  the  culmination  of  advance  in  Italian  art.      Before  him  there  were 


324 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


progress  and  improvement ;  after 
him  came  centuries  of  deteriora- 
tion. Perliaps  because  of  this 
position  which  Raphael  occupies 
in  art  history,  the  attitude  of 
many  present-day  critics  toward 
him  is  by  no  means  cordial.  His 
painting  certainly  contains  de- 
fects and  mannerisms  which  his 
followers  exaggerated  into  very 
serious  faults.  He  was  never- 
theless a  marvellously  able 
painter,  quick,  receptive,  daring 
and  original.  Several  of  his 
representations  of  Mother  and 
Child,  including  the  Sistine  Ma- 
donna and  the  popular  "Madonna 
of  the  Chair,"  are  not  only  among 
the  best  liked  of  pictures  but  are 
among  the  best  painted.  His 
portrait  of  himself  reveals  a 
youth  of  singularly  noble  countenance.  Study  of  the  Sistine  Madonna 
shows  that  it  excels  particularly  in  qualities  of  line,  that  is,  in  separation  of 
the  different  masses  of  the  picture  by  graceful,  flowing  contours,  which,  as  in 
nature,  are  now  hard  and  sharp,  now  almost  lost. 

Raphael's  brief  life  was  full  of  honors  and  successes.  The  serenity  of 
his  disposition  is  reflected  in  his  pure,  spiritualized  art. 

The  Great  Venetians.  Despite  the  leadership  in  painting  of  the  city 
of  Florence,  Venice  continued  to  be  a  vigorous  rival.  Giorgione,  or  George 
the  Great,  the  popular  name  of  Giorgio  Barbarelli  (1477-1511),  was  a 
strong  painter  whose  work  was  interrupted  by  an  untimely  death.  He 
introduced  new  processes,  technically  known  as  scumbling  and  glazing,  which 
increased  the  range  of  the  painter's  powers  of  expression.  He  excelled 
particularly  in  portraying  richly  apparelled  residents  of  the  island  city  in 
which  he  lived. 


Sistine  Madonna,  by  Raphael 


ART  HISTORY 


326 


The  Entombment  of  Christ,  by  Titian 


The  most  wonderful 
painter,  unquestionably, 
of  the  Venetian  school 
was  Tiziano  Vecelli,  more 
generally  called  Titian 
(1477-15  76),  a  pupil  of 
the  Bellini.  Titian  prac- 
tised his  profession  con- 
tinuously from  boyhood 
almost  to  the  day  of  his 
death,  in  his  ninety-ninth 
year.  He  was  strong, 
as  were  most  of  the  Venetians,  in  color.  His  drawing,  too,  though  less  severe 
than  that  of  the  great  Florentines,  was  well-nigh  faultless,  and  his  composition, 
or  grouping  of  figures,  very  effective.  The  "Entombment  of  Christ  "  in  the 
Louvre,  Paris,  is  considered  by  many  critics  to  be  his  greatest  picture. 

Of  nearly  equal  reputation  among  the  critics  of  later  days  are  Paul 
Veronese  (1528-1 588),  whose  immense 
"Marriage  at  Cana"is  one  of  the  capital 
possessions  of  the  Louvre,  and  Tintoretto 
(15  1 8-1  594),  one  of  the  most  prolific  of 
Italian  painters,  whose  speed  of  execution 
gave  him  the  nickname  of  "II  Furioso  " 
(the  Inspired).  His  best  work  is  "The 
Miracle  of  St.  Mark  "  in  Venice. 

Somewhat  outside  of  the  regular 
schools  of  Italian  painters  was  Correggio 
(1494- 1 534),  who  did  valuable  work  in 
various  cities  of  northern  Italy.  No  ar- 
tist before  his  time  had  ever  so  completely 
mastered  the  problem  of  light  and  shadow. 
Space,  light,  and  motion  were  what  he 
sought  to  express.  Certain  frescoes  in 
churches  and  convents  of  the  city  of 
Parma,  where   he  was    born,  lived    and  holy  night,  by  correggio 


326 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


died,  represent  him  at  his  best. 
The  celebrated  "Holy  Night" 
in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  in  which 
a  sweet-faced  mother  leans  with 
brooding  tenderness  over  her 
babe,  illustrates  the  manner  in 
which  Correggio  often  throws  a 
strong  white  light  upon  the  por- 
tion of  the  picture  which  he 
wants  to  emphasize. 

Italian  Sculpture.  Mi- 
chelangelo was  by  no  means 
the  only  important  sculptor  of 
the  Italian  Renaissance.  The 
art  of  sculpture  reached,  in  fact, 
a  development  only  a  little  in- 
ferior to  that  of  painting.  One 
of  the  earliest  of  the  masters  was 
Lorenzo  Ghiberti  (1378-1455), 
of  whose  sculptured  gates  at  the 
Baptistery  of  St.  John  in  Pisa 
Michelangelo  once  said,  "They  are  worthy  to  be  the  Gates  of  Paradise." 

A  great  artist  of  the  fifteenth  century  was  Donatello  (1386-1466),  a 
sculptor  who  modelled  the  human  form  as  nearly  as  possible  exactly  as  he 
saw  it.  Among  other  things  for  which  Donatello  is  famous  is  the  first 
equestrian  statue  ever  erected,  one  at  Padua,  representing  a  Venetian  general 
on  horseback.  Since  his  day  equestrian  statues  have  become  numerous  in 
nearly  all  cities  of  Europe  and  America. 

Members  of  the  Delia  Robbia  family  were  able  sculptors  of  Florence  in 
the  fifteenth  century.  Notable  not  only  for  works  which  he  left  behind,  such 
as  his  statue  of  "  Perseus,"  but  for  one  of  the  most  interesting  autobiogra- 
phies ever  written,  was  Benvenuto  Cellini  (i 500-1 571). 

Flemish  and  German  Art.  Along  the  route  followed  by  the  mer- 
chants from  North  Italy  to  London,  over  the  Alps  and  thence  down  the  river 
Rhine,  were  several  cities  which  were  early  aroused  by  the  same  awakened 


One  of  the  Doors  op  the  Baptistery 


ART  HISTORY 


327 


interest  in  arts  and  sciences  tliat  was  felt  in  Italy.  The  architecture  of  these 
towns  began  to  differ  from  that  of  places  off  the  main  line  of  travel.  Schools 
of  painting  and  sculpture  sprang  up,  often  with  healthful  competition  among 
themselves. 

Especially  in  painting,  individual  German,  Flemish  and  Dutch  artists 
attained  a  celebrity  surpassed  only  by  the  Italians.  Patience,  love  of  fine 
work  and  great  technical  ability  marked  all  their  efforts.  The  invention  of 
oil  colors  is  attributed  to  the  artist  members  of  the  Van  Eyck  family  of 
Ghent,  in  Belgium  (about  1330  a.  d.).  Previously  various  vehicles,  such  as 
size  and  white  of  ^gg,  had  been  used  as  a  means  of  conveying  piginents  over 
flat  surfaces  of  plaster,  stone,  wood 'or  canvas.  The  new  medium  made 
possible  a  degree  of  finish  that  had  never  before  been  attained.  Oil  colors 
speedily  came  into  use  among  the  painters  of  all  lands. 

The  Van  Eycks  —  Hubert  (i  366-1426)  and  Jan  (i  386-1440) — were 
very  capable  painters,  noted  for  delicacy  and  fineness  of  technique.  Similar 
characteristics  appear  in  their  successors,  of  whom  Hans 
Memling  (1450-1494)  was  a  painter  of  peculiarly  refined 
perceptions. 

The  Greatest  German  Master.  Nearer  to  Italy 
a  school  of  strong  artists  arose  in  the  German  city  of 
Nuremburg.  Among  these,  Albert  Diirer,  an  efficient 
man,  poet  and  architect  as  well  as  engraver  and  painter, 
represented  the  Renaissance  in  Germany  quite  as  faith- 
fully as  Michelangelo  or  Titian  in  the  land  on  the 
other  side  of  the  mountains.  Diirer's  art  was  distinctly 
national.  He  painted  for  a  short  time  in  Venice  about 
1505  and  came  under  the  influence  of  the  colorists  of 
that  city,  but  throughout  his  life  he  affected  in  the 
choice  of  his  subjects  the  strange,  weird  imaginings, 
executed  with  a  high  degree  of  finish,  which  the  northern 
races  of  Europe  have  always  admired.  His  gi-eat  altar- 
piece  in  the  Dresden  Gallery,  in  the  central  panel  of 
which  the  Virgin  is  seen  praying  over  the  Child,  has  dis- 
tinct unity  of  design  and  rhythm  of  light  and  shade  despite  st.  mark  and  st.  paul, 
the  complexity  of   the  detail.      Durer  was   particularly        "'"(j^rGaue^ry)"* 


328 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


Portrait  of  a  Man,  by  Holbein 


Burgomaster  Meier  Madonna,  by  Holbein 


eminent  as  a  wood-carver.  His  engraving  entitled  "  The  Triumphal  Arch 
of  Maximilian,"  composed  of  92  separate  blocks,  the  whole  wood-cut  being 
O)  X  lo^',  was  regarded  in  his  lifetime  as  a  marvellous  technical  achievement. 
Another  very  powerful  German  painter  was  Hans  Holbein,  "the 
younger"  (1497-1543),  the  third  of  a  family  of  the  town  of  Augsburg  to 
become  noted  for  artistic  attainments.  Holbein  made  his  permanent  home 
at  Basle,  but  spent  many  years  at  the  court  of  Henry  VI H,  in  London,  where 
he  died  during  the  prevalence  of  a  plague.  His  most  popular  work,  un- 
doubtedly, is  the  "  Dance  of  Death,"  a  series  of  wood-cuts,  in  each  of  which 
a  skeleton  is  depicted  in  the  act  of  drawing  some  victim  from  the  scene  of  his 
earthly  activities.  Holbein  is  accounted  one  of  the  ablest  of  the  world's  por- 
trait painters.  He  executed  also,  compositions  of  sacred  subjects.  Probably 
his  most  meritorious  painting  of  this  character  is  the  Burgomaster  Meier 
Madonna,  now  at  Dresden,  which  takes  its  name  from  a  German  official  for 
whom    it   was    painted.      The   members  of   the    Burgomaster's  family  are 


ART  HISTORY 


329 


represented  as  kneeling  before  Mary,  who  stands  in  an  architectural  niche 
holding  the  infant  Christ.  The  arrangement  or  composition  of  the  figures, 
so  that  no  one  is  unduly  prominent,  and  the  careful  characterization  of  the 
individual  heads,  are  marks  of  Holbein's  best  manner. 

Rubens,  Van  Dyck  and  Frans  Hals.  The  commercial  prosperity  of 
the  Netherlands,  then  the  trading  center  of  northern  Europe,  was  favorable 
to  art.  The  cities  of  what  are  now  Holland  and  Belgium,  vied  with  each 
other  in  decoration  of  their  churches,  town-halls,  and  private  houses. 
Antwerp  was  particularly  proud  of  being  the  home  of  Peter  Paul  Rubens 
(i 577-1640),  painter,  linguist  and  diplomat,  hundreds  of  whose  vigorous 
canvases  abound  in  the  quaint  Flemish  city.  No  other  man  of  northern 
lineage  so  adequately  represented  the  spirit  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  He 
was  master  of  the  culture  of  his  day,  a  skilful  politician,  and  still  he  found 
time  to  paint  more  than  1,800  pictures,  some  of  them  of  enormous  size. 
Such  a  canvas  as  his  "  Descent  from  the  Cross  "  at  Antwerp  is  admirable 
for  the  evidences  it  contains  of  all-conquering  energy  and  technical  facility 
that  made  stupendous  tasks  easy  of  accomplishment.  Rubens'  painting  was 
never  pretty,  not  always 
beautiful,  but  it  was  con- 
sistently robust  and  mas- 
terful. 

Rubens  had  many 
pupils.  Of  these  the 
most  distinguished  was 
Anthony  Van  Dyck 
(i  599-1641),  who,  as 
court  painter  of  Charles  I 
of  England,  is  now  repre- 
sented by  hundreds  of 
portraits  of  gay  cavaliers 
in  British  museums  and 
manor-houses. 

One  of  the  greatest 
of  the  men  of  this  age,  in  ^^^^^  childken  of  char.es  i,  painted  by  va.  dvck 

the  estimation    of    nearly  (Eoyal  GaUery,  Dresden) 


S30 


ART  EDUCATIOX  —  HIGH  SCHOOL 


A  Jolly  Man,  by  Frans  Hals 


all  modern  painters,  was  a  merry,  dis- 
solute fellow  of  the  Dutch  city  of  Haarlem, 
Frans  Hals  (i  584-1666),  who  painted 
with  remarkable  facility  and  strength,  not 
only  individuals,  but  also  groups  and  asso- 
ciations of  Dutch  business  men,  sometimes 
containing  thirty  or  forty  half-length  or 
three-quarter  length  figures.  A  gallery 
at  Haarlem  is  filled  with  these  big  "  cor- 
poration pieces,"  as  they  are  called,  which 
reveal  in  Hals  a  portrait  painter  who  was 
able  to  secure  singularly  complete  truth- 
fulness and  fidehty  to  the  character  of  the 
solid,  well-conditioned  people  among  whom 
he  lived.  Frans  Hals  set  the  pace  for 
many  very  competent  artists  who  followed 
during  the  years  in  which  Holland  was  one  of  the  principal  powers  of  Europe. 
Rembrandt.  Of  all  these  Dutchmen  the  most  noted  was  Rembrandt 
van  Rijn  (of  the  Rhine,  1606-1669),  the  three  hundredth  anniversary  of 
whose  birth  was  celebrated  in  Holland  in  the  summer  of  1906.  Rembrandt 
was  recognized  by  his  contemporaries  as  a  very  original  artist.  His  reputa- 
tion has  steadily  grown  in  the  last  two  centuries. 

A  citizen  of  the  Dutch  city  of  Amsterdam,  in  Holland,  Rembrandt, 
like  other  artists  of  his  time,  painted  portraits  of  substantial  dignitaries  and 
their  wives  with  a  method  —  much  imitated  since  his  day  —  of  throwing 
strong  light  on  the  faces  and  other  important  parts  while^  casting  the  rest  of 
the  picture  into  deep  shadow.  His  group  portraits,  sometimes  involving  a 
score  or  more  of  individual  likenesses,  give  usually  a  sense  of  sunlight 
vibrating  in  a  darkened  room.  Using  this  method  as  a  means  of  expression, 
Rembrandt  was  able  to  make  wonderful  display  of  his  penetrating  knowledge 
of  human  nature  and  of  landscape  effects.  He  was  quick  to  seize  upon 
dramatic  action  of  the  head  or  hand.  "  The  Anatomy  Lesson,"  a  study  of 
a  group  of  physicians  gathered  about  a  nearly  nude  figure,  a  work  which  was 
painted  when  the  artist  was  only  twenty-six  years  old,  is  interesting  in  its 
setting  forth  of  scientific  earnestness,  and  very  beautiful  in  the  contrasts  of 


ART  HISTORY 


Strongly  illumined  faces,  reinforced  by  white  ruffs  and  dark  velvety  cloaks. 
Equally  effective  are  such  pictures  as  "The  Syndics,"  a  group  of  the  six  di- 
rectors of  a  Dutch  dry-goods  corporation,  and  "The  Night  Watch,"  a  tur- 
bulent band  of  armed  men  led  by  a  certain  Captain  Cocq.  Rembrandt 
painted  mythological  subjects  and  a  few  landscapes  as  well  as  portraits.  He 
has  also  been  called  the  "  Prince  of  Etchers,"  since  he  was  the  first  to  dis- 
cover the  full  possibilities  of  the  art  of  copper-plate  etching. 

Dutch  art  reached  its  highest  development  in  Rembrandt  though  he  had 
several  very  able  younger  contemporaries.  One  of  these  was  the  cattle  painter, 
Paul  Potter  (1625-1654), 'whose  untimely  death  interrupted  a  promising 
career.  The  "  Young  Bull "  at  The  Hague  is  a  famous  canvas.  Peter  de 
Hoogh  (1 63 2- 1 681)  was  a  painter  of  interiors  depicting  scenes  of  common 
life,  which  are  in  high  favor  both  with  artists  and  collectors  of  today,  as  are 
the  somewhat  similar  works  of  Jan  van  der  Meer  of  Delft  (i 632-1675). 
Jacob  Ruysdael  (i  625-1681)  is  held  to  be  the  most  gifted  of  the  early 
painters  of  landscape,  a  branch  of  art  which  had  never  before  been  painted 
independently,  —  the  great  Italians  and 
their  followers  using  it  simply  with  ref- 
erence to  the  background  of  figure  com- 
positions. 

Spanish  Art.  Spain,  a  country  in 
which  a  fine  type  of  Gothic  architecture 
was  created  in  the  later  Middle  Ages, 
was  slow  to  feel  the  effects  of  the  awak- 
ening which  swept  Italy  and  the  Rhine 
Valley  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  Several  moderately  good 
painters,  however,  appeared  during  and 
after  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
El  Greco  (i  548-1625)  was  an  Italian- 
trained  artist  of  originality  and  power. 
Finally  in  Velasquez  (i  599-1660)  Spain 
acclaims  perhaps  the  greatest  of  all  the 
world's  painters.     An  untiring  and  ob- 


serving student  of  nature,  of  strong  will 


[an  with  Fur  Cap,  by  Rembrandt 


AR7'  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


power  and  lovable  disposition, 
Velasquez  —  so  most  painters  of 
the  present  assert  • —  mastered  his 
art  as  hardly  any  other  man  has 
acquired  it.  Chosen  while  still  a 
young  man  to  be  court  painter  of 
Philip  IV,  he  had  every  possible 
advantage  in  advancing  toward 
perfection  ;  opportunity  to  study 
the  works  of  his  Italian  predeces- 
sors, friendly  intercourse  with 
painters  of  his  own  time  and, 
above  all,  the  encouragement  of 
intelligent  and  discriminating  pat- 
rons. His  early  training  in  very 
careful  drawing  and  painting  of 
studies  of  common  life  stood  him 
in  good  stead  when  he  was  obliged 
to  work  under  great  pressure,  and, 
though  he  was  forced  to  adopt  a 
method,  he  never  fell  into  mannerisms  of  execution.  His  art,  as  shown  in 
"Las  Meninas  (The  Maids  of  Honor),"  "The  Tapestry  Weavers,"  "The 
Surrender  at  Breda,"  "The  Topers"  and  scores  of  other  works,  very  many 
of  which  are  now  in  the  Prado,  a  museum  at  Madrid,  included  about  every- 
thing with  which  the  painter  may  legitimately  concern  himself,  while  it  is 
singularly  free  from  artificiality  and  false  sentiment.  No  other  painter  has 
so  successfully  conveyed  a  complete  impression  of  form  as  revealed  in 
atmosphere.  Even  the  portraits  of  his  young  manhood,  such  as  "The 
Laughing  Peasant,"  depicting  a  plain-visaged  and  roughly-clad  youth  uphold- 
ing a  flower  in  his  right  hand,  are  executed  with  excellent  understanding  of 
all  the  steps  necessary  to  secure  correct  relationships  of  light  and  dark  and 
of  color,  of  hard  and  soft  edges,  of  rough  and  smooth  surfaces.  In  such 
canvases  as  "The  Surrender  at  Breda"  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  a  great 
military  event  are  depicted  with  all  the  complexity  of  detail  in  so  final  a  way 
that  the  alteration  or  addition  of  a  single  lance  would  be  almost  unthinkable. 


Portrait  of  Pope  Innocent  X,  by  Velasquez 
(Museum  rerraitage,  St.  Petersburg) 


ART  HISTORY 


333 


No  great  school  of  Spanish  art  followed  Velasquez,  just  as  none  had  pre- 
ceded him.  The  only  other  important  name  is  that  of  Murillo  (i6 18-1682), 
a  painter  at  first  of  hard,  severe  studies  of  humble  life  and  later  in  his  career 
of  capable,  though  rather  insipid,  religious  compositions. 

The  Arts  in  France.  Powerful  country  though  France  was  in  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  and  filled  with  meritorious  works  exe- 
cuted in  the  Gothic  period,  the  art  flourished  mainly  through  imitation  of  the 
Italians.  No  French  artists  of  this  era  can  in  any  way  be  compared  with  Titian 
and  Holbein,  Velasquez  and  Rembrandt.  Claude  Lorraine  (1600-1628), 
a  very  interesting  landscape  painter,  who  rendered  outdoor  scenes  suffused 
with  beautiful  golden  haze,  was  indeed  a  Frenchman  by  birth  but  an  Italian 
by  residence  and  sentiment.  Many  of  the  painters  who  worked  in  Paris 
under  Louis  XIV  are  significant  in  the  eyes  of  the  French,  but  not  of  the 
world  at  large.  Even  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  gay  life__^of  the 
French  capital  was  mirrored  in  more  or  less  appropriate  forms  of  architecture, 
painting  and  sculpture,  there  were  no  artists  who  now  stand  out  as  vital 
figures  in  the  progress  of  the  fine  arts.  Dainty  representations  of  unreal 
shepherdesses  with  flaunting  ribbons  tied  about  their  crooks  were  what  the 
artificial  age  of  Louis  XV  and  Louis  XVI 
admired.  Even  the  French  Revolution, 
occurring  at  the  end  of  the  century,  was 
accompanied  in  art  only  by  a  reaction  in 
favor  of  the  severest  styles  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans.  It  seemed  for  a 
time  to  be  believed  that  whatever  beauty 
there  lies  in  form  had  all  been  discovered 
in  the  age  of  Pericles,  and  that  modern 
artists  could  legitimately  do  nothing  but 
follow  the  examples  of  that  time.  Hence 
the  severely  classical  pictures  of  David 
(i 748-1 825)  and  of  his  distinguished 
pupil  Ingres  (i 780-1867),  the  latter  one 
of  the  most  accomplished  draughtsmen  of 
the  human  figure  that  has  ever  lived. 

Finally,    in    the    early    nineteenth  drawing  by  Ingres 


a:  V 


0 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


century,  there  began  a  new  enthusiasm,  a  popular  interest  in  the  work  of  dif- 
ferent groups  of  artists  which,  with  the  increase  of  the  material  prosperity  of 
its  thrifty  people,  presently  made  France  the  leading  country  of  modern 
Europe  in  all  the  fine  arts. 

This  outcome  has  been  attended  by  a  long  running  fight  in  each  of 
the  arts  between  the  adherents  of  the  classical  style  on  the  one  hand  and  of 
the  romantic  movement  on  the  other.  The  extreme  followers  of  the  one 
contention  have  believed  in  doing,  so  far  as  modern  conditions  allow,  just 
what  the  ancients  did  or  would  have  done  in  the  circumstances ;  the  adhe- 
rents of  the  other  point  of  view  in  freely  expressing  ideas,  according  to  present 
needs,  with  less  regard  for  the  classical  traditions,  and  with  more  considera- 
tion of  the  artist's  moods  and  likings. 

This  contest  between  two  opposite  ideas  has  undoubtedly  been  valuable. 
It  has  helped  to  render  French  art  thoroughly  progressive  and  in  some  respects 
not  unworthy  to  compare  with  the  art  of  the  best  periods  of  the  past.  The 
architecture  of  present-day  France,  while  not  highly  original,  is  the  most  con- 
sistent and  attractive  national  architecture  of  our  times.  French  painting 
and  sculpture  throughout  the  nineteenth  century  always  afforded  the  standard 
by  which  the  art  of  other  countries  was  judged.  German  art,  to  be  sure,  has 
of  late  years  begun  to  show  vitality,  and  there  are  interesting  groups  of  artists 

in  other  European  coun- 
tries, but  Paris  is  still  the 
art  center  of  the  world. 

The  Romantic 
Movement.  The  revolt 
against  classicism  in 
French  painting  was 
headed  by  Jean  Louis 
Gericault  (i  791-1824) 
and  Eugene  Delacroix 
(I  79  I -I  863).  The 
former  died  young,  and 
left  principally  his  dra- 
matic picture,  "  The  Raft 


The  Baft  of  the  Medusa,  by  Geeicadlt 


of    the    Medusa,"    to 


ART  HISTORY 


335 


perpetuate  his  fame.  This  work  depicts  the  moment  of  dehverance  of  fifteen 
survivors  from  a  band  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  who  embarked  on  a  raft  after 
the  wreck  of  the  frigate  Medusa,  in  1 8i6.  From  amidst  piles  of  the  emaciated 
dead  the  few  who  are  still  alive  signal  for  help  to  a  distant  vessel.  Working 
upon  so  dramatic  a  theme,  the  painter  produced  a  masterpiece  that  caught  the 
fancy  of  all  the  radicals  of  his  time,  while  it  greatly  shocked  the  conservatives. 

Delacroix  painted  for  many  years  with  almost  Oriental  splendor  of  color, 
and  exerted  a  strong  influence  over  the  imaginations  of  younger  men.  The 
appearance  of  his  picture,  "The  Massacre  of  Scio,"  began  the  feud  between 
romanticists  and  classicists. 

Among  those  who  derived  special  inspiration  from  the  romantic  move- 
ment was  Jean  Frangois  Millet  (1814-1875),  a  Breton  peasant  and  painter  of 
peasants,  in  the  lines  of  whose  toil-bowed  backs  he  believed  that  he  had  found 
the  same  beautiful  curves  that  ennoble  Greek  statuary.  .His  fellow  country- 
men were  slow  to  appreciate  a  man  who  deliberately  chose  to  live  and  paint 
among  humble  field  workers,  but  reverence  for  his  memory  has  steadily  in- 
creased since  his  death,  and  his  best  pictures,  "The  Sower,"  "The  Gleaners," 
"  The  Angelus  "  and  others  are  now  held  in  universal  admiration.  If  "  The 
Gleaners  "  is  carefully  studied.  Millet's  fine  feeling  for  the  planes,  the  rounded 
surfaces  and  the  long,  sweeping  contours  of  the  human  figure,  together  with 
his  determination  to  con- 
vey something  of  the  dig- 
nity of  labor,  can  hardly 
fail  to  be  discovered. 

Of  the  same  time 
with  Millet  were  several 
painters  of  high  standing, 
among  others,  Rousseau 
(18  12-1867),  Daubigny 
(1817-1878)  and  Diaz 
(1807-18  76).  Constant 
Troyan  (1810-1865) 
painted  landscape, 
usually  containing  cattle, 
with  excellent  sentiment  the  gleaners,  by  millet 


ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 


r 

'^V^B 

'X  s'yiij 

'  \  -^  '^j 

F      ^f 

^i&^E  "^a 

k  1 

I^HhHIii^I 

Landscape,  by  Coeot 


and  understanding.  Per- 
haps the  most  remark- 
able woman  painter  of 
the  nineteenth  century- 
was  Rosa  Bonheur,  whose 
animal  pictures  are  ex- 
tremely popular.  One  of 
the  best  known  is  "  The 
Horse  Fair,"  in  the  Met- 
ropolitan Museum,  New 
York. 

One    of    the    most 

gifted  of  all  the  artists 

of  the  middle  nineteenth 

century  was   Camille  Corot   (i 796-1 875),   son  of  a  prosperous  hairdresser, 

who,  by  granting  an  unbusinesslike  lad  an  annual  income  for  life  of  fifteen 

hundred  francs,  made  the  way  easy  for 
the  most  poetic  landscape  painter  of 
modern  times.  Living  quietly  in  a 
Parisian  suburb,  Corot  made  a  lifelong 
study  of  the  misty  vaporous  effects  of 
early  morning  and  evening.  He  was  a 
man  of  beautiful  personality,  simple  and 
unaffected,  and  his  art,  as  a  great  critic 
has  remarked,  has  limitations  but  no 
faults. 

Great  names  abound  in  the  list  of 
French  artists  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Among  the  most  significant  are  those  of 
F^douard  Manet  (1832-1883)  and  Claude 
Monet,  a  contemporary  painter. 

Manet  was  the  father  of  "impres- 
sionism," a  new  point  of  view  in  paint- 
ing which   has  altered  the   professional 
The  Boy  With  the  Sword,  by  Manet         practices  of  many  modern  artists.     All 


ART  HISTORY  337 

painters  before  his  time  had  been  in  the  habit,  though  recognizing  that  white 
paint  is  dark  as  compared  witli  nature's  high  Hghts,  and  blaclc  paint  hght  as 
compared  with  the  depth  of  some  natural  shadows,  of  seeking  to  get  exact 
relations  within  a  scale  of  "values  "  between  these  two  extremes  of  black  and 
white.  Manet  completely  threw  away  the  scale,  painted  all  that  he  was  able 
to  paint  exactly  as  he  saw  it,  and  the  rest  with  the  nearest  approach  to  cor- 
rectness that  his  pigments  would  allow.  In  this  way  he  secured  very  strik- 
ing reality  for  the  objects  of  his  representation, 

Manet's  valuable  discovery,  which  he  applied  mainly  to  indoor  painting, 
has  been  successfully  worked  out  in  its  application  to  landscape  by  Monet, 
the  first  painter  adequately  to  represent  effects  of  broad  sunlight  which  had 
hitherto  been  regarded  as  beyond  the  artist's  powers  to  depict.  Monet  has 
had  many  followers  in  France  and  in  other  countries. 

British  Art.  The  people  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  though  very 
appreciative  of  literary  attainments,  have  never  been  pre-eminent  in  encour- 
aging the  highest  manifestations  of  the  fine  arts.  British  architecture, 
though  interesting  at  certain  periods,  has  at  no  time  been  great  and  original. 
The  English  Gothic  cathedrals  are  very  beautiful,  but  not  quite  so  beautiful, 
and  not  quite  so  good  Gothic,  as  the  best  French  structures  of  the  same 
centuries.  The  classical  revival  of  the  seventeenth  century  produced  clever 
imitations  of  the  work  of  Italian  architects  who  were  themselves  endeavoring 
to  imitate  the  ancient  Romans.  Sculpture  has  never  flourished  in  the  island 
kingdom  since  the  days  of  the  cathedral  builders  in  the  centuries  immediately 
following  the  Norman  Conquest  (1066),  when  unknown  native  and  foreign 
artisans  produced  sculptural  decorations  of  considerable  merit. 

There  is  at  least  a  fairly  long  list  of  competent  painters,  for  a  consider- 
able class  of  the  English  people  have  long  taken  an  interest  in  pictorial  repre- 
sentation. Painting  was  largely  in  the  hands  of  foreigners  down  to  the  time 
of  William  Hogarth  (1697-1764),  the  first  original  English  artist  of  any  note, 
whose  "Rake's  Progress  "  is  one  of  the  classics  of  illustrative  art.  A  famous 
painter  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  (i 723-1 792), 
friend  of  the  literary  men  and  the  statesmen  of  his  time.  He  was  a  very  clever 
man  at  portrait  painting  and  very  learned  in  the  history  and  theory  of  the 
art  he  practised.  His  attempts,  however,  to  rival  the  design  and  color  of 
the  great  Venetians  were  quite  unsuccessful.     He  believed  thoroughly  in  what 


ART  EDUCATIO.Y—HIGH  SCHOOL 


The  Blue  Boy,  by  Gainsborougi 


Rosa  Triplex,  by  Kossetti 


he    called   "the  grand  style,"  though  he 
was  unable  to  attain  to  it. 

Thomas  Gainsborough  (i  727-1 788) 
was  perhaps  the  most  truly  artistic  of 
English  painters  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. His  landscapes  and  portraits  show 
prettiness  and  charm  as  well  as  general 
faithfulness  to  the  impression.  Gains- 
borough was  influenced  mainly  by  the 
works  of  Van  Dyck  and  by  close  study 
of  nature.  One  of  his  celebrated  pictures 
was  "The  Blue  Boy,"  painted  in  defiance 
of  a  rule  then  prevailing  among  British 
artists  that  the  principal  object  in  a  com- 
position should  be  of  a  warm  color. 

Of  a  somewhat  later  period  was  J.  M. 
W.  Turner  (1775-185  i),  a  vigorous  and 
versatile  landscape  painter  regarding  the 
merits  of  whose  work  there  has  been  more 
or  less  controversy  ever 
since  the  English  art 
critic,  John  Ruskin,  first 
praised  him  extravagantly 
and  eloquently.  His 
"  Slave  Ship,"  now  in  the 
Boston  Museum  of  Fine 
Arts,  has  been  the  subject 
of,  probably,  more  dis- 
agreement than  any  other 
picture  in  America.  It  is 
a  lurid  representation  of 
the  casting  overboard  of  a 
number  of  slaves  from  a 
ship  threatened  by  storm. 
The  Pre-Raphaelites, 


ART  HISTORY 


339 


a  little  group  of  painters  who  aimed  to  work  in  the  spirit  of  the  earlier 
Italian  artists,  were  also  first  proclaimed  to  the  world  at  large  by  Ruskin's 
facile  pen.  The  principal  men  in  this  movement  were  Rossetti  (1828-1882), 
J.  E.  Millais  (1829-1896)  and  Holman  Hmit,  born  in  1827  and  is  still  at 
the  present  time  (1907)  a  veteran  English  painter.  Another  artist  of  the 
mid- Victorian  age  was  Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  a  capable  painter  of  animals, 
whose  works  have  been  appreciated  by  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  who 
may  or  may  not  have  cared  for  art  but  who  have  liked  to  look  at  well-executed 
dogs  and  Scotch  cattle.  English  art,  within  the  last  generation,  has  begun 
to  be  influenced  by  the  art  of  France. 

The  Arts  in  the  United  States.  American  art  has  also  during  the 
past  forty  years  depended  greatly  upon  the  French  for  instruction.  It  re- 
sembled English  art  at  the  outset,  as  was  natural  in  a  collection  of  British 
colonies.  The  so-called  "Colonial"  architecture  and  furniture  were  based 
upon  the  classic  revival  which  temporarily  put  an  end  to  Gothic  building  in 
England  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  portrait  painters 
of  the  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  Periods  looked  upon  London  as  the  art 
center  of  the  world.  John  Singleton  Copley  (1737-18 15)  and  Benjamin 
West  ( 1 738-1820)  were  American  born 
painters  who  achieved  their  triumphs  in 
England.  Washington  Allston  (1779— 
1843),  who,  during  a  temporary  residence 
in  London,  appeared  to  be  a  painter  of 
marked  promise,  is  generally  believed  to 
have  made  a  serious  mistake  in  returning 
to  a  life  harassed  by  debts  and  misunder- 
standings  in  his  native  country.  Gilbert 
Stuart  (1 754-1828),  whose  portraits  of 
Washington  and  other  celebrities  have 
become  classic,  was  technically  one  of  the 
ablest  of  early  American  artists.  His  un- 
finished Athenaeum  portrait  of  Washing- 
ton is  singularly  pure  and  fresh  in  color 
and  well  modelled. 

•  1,,  1,,         TT-       -1^  ,,  Portrait  OF  George  Washington, 

Although  the  United  States  had    a  by  stuart 


340  ART  EDUCATION— HIGH  SCHOOL 

number  of  intelligent  and  scholarly  landscape  painters  prior  to  and  during 
the  Civil  War  period,  the  real  awakening  of  art  interest  in  this  country  began 
in  the  "seventies,"  when  a  number  of  young  Americans  who  had  been  study- 
ing painting  or  architecture  in  Paris  returned  to  apply  at  home  the  lessons 
they  had  learned  abroad.  Prominent  among  them  was  William  Morris  Hunt 
(i  824-1 879),  who  had  become  acquainted  with  Millet  at  Barbizon  and  who 
regarded  it  as  part  of  his  life  work  to  make  his  fellow-countrymen  better 
acquainted  with  the  pictures  of  the  contemporary  French  painters.  Hunt 
himself  painted  §ome  notable  canvases,  "The  Bathers"  being  perhaps  his 
best-known  composition,  and,  as  an  inspiring  and  conscientious  teacher  of  art, 
be  led  many  American  young  men  and  young  women  to  study  drawing  and 
painting  in  the  thorough-going,  serious  manner  in  which  art  is  studied  in 
France. 

Because  of  the  seriousness  with  which  American  artists  have  accus- 
tomed themselves  to  pursue  their  professions,  —  whereas  in  some  countries 
practice  of  the  Fine  Arts  is,  unfortunately,  regarded  as  a  sort  of  polite 
accomplishment,  —  the  United  States  already  has  schools  of  architects, 
painters  and  sculptors  that  may  be  believed  to  be  the  most  promising  of 
any  in  the  twentieth  century.  Our  men  are  still  perhaps  a  little  imitative 
of  the  French,  but  the  principles  that  they  learned  in  Paris  are  being  grad- 
ually readapted  to  American  needs.  A  particularly  encouraging  circum- 
stance is  the  reunion  of  the  allied  arts  in  the  adornment  of  public  buildings, 
as  in  the  Boston  Public  Library,  the  Library  of  Congress  at  Washington,  the 
Appellate  Court,  New  York,  and  very  many  others.  Whenever,  in  fact,  a 
State  capitol  or  a  large  public  library  is  erected  the  architects  now,  as  was 
done  in  all  the  best  periods  of  art,  summon  to  their  assistance  clever  paint- 
ers and  sculptors  who  can  be  relied  upon  to  execute  their  ideas.  Li  that 
co-operation  of  the  artists  lies  the  hope  of  the  future. 


Ind 


ex 


Abydos,  temple  of,  284 

Accents  in  drawings,  26 

Acropolis  at  Athens,  ruins  of,  309 

Action,  effect  of  in  the  human  figure,  79 

Acute  angle,  123 

Acute-angled  triangle,  124 

Alhambra,  293 

Allston,  Washington,  339 

American  art  and  artists,  340 

Anatomy,  of  the  human  figure,  71;  of 
animals,  94 

Ancients,  our  indebtedness  to,  305 

Angle,  definition  of,  123;  right,  123;  acute, 
123 ;  obtuse,  123 

Angular  perspective,  45 

Animal  drawing,  71 

Animals,  anatomy  of,  94 

Apelles,  312 

Arabic  inscription,  291 

Arc,  126 

Arch  of  Constantine,  287 

Arches,  294 

Architectural  construction,  305 

Architectural  drawing,  179 ;  problems  in, 
180,  1S6,  198,  209,  214 

Architecture,  styles  of,  285,  288 ;  the  funda- 
mental art,  300;  the  characteristic  art  of 
the  Romans,  312 

Architrave,  195.     Plate  II. 

Art  history,  303 

Artists,  famous,  296 

Art  principles  in  design,  223 

Arts  in  France,  ^33,  334 

Arts  in  the  United  States,  339,  340 

Assyrian  bas-relief,  306 

Augustus,  bust  of,  314 

Balance,  in  the  human  figure,  79  ;  in 
animals,  99  ;  principles  of,  in  design,  235  ; 
of  abstract  areas,  236;  applied,  237,  239 

Baptistery  of  St.  John  in  Pisa,  doors  of,  326 

Beauty,  obedience  to  law,  223 

Blocking  in,  15 

Blue  Boy,  by  Gainsborough,  338 

Blueprinting,  177,  178 

Bolts,  171,  172,  173,  174 


Bone  construction,  in  the  human  figure,  86, 
87,  88,  89;  in  animals,  94,  95,  97 

Bones,  names  of,  in  human  figure,  87,  88,  89 

Bonheur,  Rosa,  336 

Botticelli,  Sandro,  319 

Boy  playing  mandolin,  by  Carpaccio,  321 

Boy  with  a  sword,  by  Manet,  336 

Bride-chest,  French,  231 

Bridge  across  the  Mississippi  at  Thebes,  44 

British  Art,  337 

Building,  in  angular  perspective,  67  ;  in  me- 
chanical perspective,  70 

Buildings,  need  of,  179 

Burgomaster  Meier  Madonna,  by  Holbein, 
328 

Byzantine  art,  288 :  capitals  and  base,  289 ; 
ornament,  290;  architecture,  314 

Cams,  175 

Campanile,  by  Giotto,  319 

Capitol  at  Washington,  299 

Carpaccio,  Italian  painter,  320 

Carved  chest  of  the  i6th  century,  246 

Cathedrals,  293,  294,  296,  315 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  326 

Center  of  gravity,  in  figures,  79,  84,  85 

Center  of  vision,  59,  61 

Charcoal  studies,  27;  with  color  added,  ^3 

Chares  of  Lindos,  sculptor,  311 

Chest,  1 6th  century,  246 

Children  of  Charles  I,  painting  by  Van  Dyck, 

329 
Choir  stalls,  cathedral  of  Amiens,  316 
Chord,  126 

Church  of  St.  Sophia,  314 
Cimabue,  318 

Circle,  foreshortened,  35;    definition   of,  125 
Circumference,  125 
City  house,  209;  walls  and  chimneys,  212; 

light   and   ventilation,  212;   strength  and 

solidity  213;  arrangement  of  rooms,  214 
City  investing  company  building.  New  York, 

301 
Classic  orders  in  Greek  architecture,  285 
Classic  styles  of  architecture,  298 
Clay,  modelling  in,  269 


342 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Clothing,  effect  of  in  figure  drawing,  93 

Cologne  cathedral,  295 

Colonial  architecture,  299,  339 

Color,  249;  properties  of,  252;  values  of, 
252  ;  intensity  of,  252  ;  schemes  of,  254,  255, 
258  ;  complements  of,  255  ;  primary  colors, 
250;  chroma  of,  252;  exercises  in,  252  et 
seq.;  monochromatic,  254,  255 

Color  chart,  251 

Colored  chalks,  or  crayons,  ■^t. 

Colored  plates,  opposite  pages  1,12,  22,  24, 
33,  34,  222,  250,  252,  261 

Color  quality,  10 

Color  sources,  261 

Color  values,  9 

Colosseum  at  Rome,  313 

Colossi  of  Amenophis  III,  Thebes,  306 

Colossus  at  Rhodes,  311 

Columns,  types  of,  219,  styles  of,  219,  285 

Comparative  anatomy  of  man  and  animals, 
94,  95,  96,  97 

Comparative  values,  6 

Compasses,  105,  107 

Composite  capital  and  base,  307 

Composite  order,  307 

Composition,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20,  21,  22,  26 

Cone,  127 

Congressional  Library  at  Washington,  mosaic 
from,  302 

Constantine,  arch  of,  287 

Construction,  conditions  of  in  architecture, 
179;  steel,  300 

Constructive  Drawing,  103 

Conventions,  59;  in  working  drawings,  132; 
in  house  construction,  180 

Convergence,  39 

Copley,  John  Singleton,  339 

Correggio,  Italian  painter,  325 

Corinthian  column,  307 

Cornice,  195,  221 

Coronation  of  Madonna,  by  Botticelli,  320 

Corot,  Camille,  336 

Cottage,  one-story,  plan  of,  186;  essential 
features  of,  188;  beauty  of  exterior,  190; 
types  of  roof,  190;  divisions  of  space,  191  ; 
kitchen,  193;  living  room,  194;  bedroom, 
194;  bathroom,  194;  ceilings,  195;  win- 
dows and  doors,  196;  chimneys,  196; 
piazza,  196;  specifications,  197 

Cover  of  note-book,  development  of,  264 

Cranks,  167 

Crayons,  colored,  ^iZ 

Cube,  126 

Cumasan  sibyl,  by  Elihu  Vedder,  227 

Curves,  irregular  or  French,  106,  109 

Cutting-planes,  153 

Cylinder,  126,  160 


Dance  of  Death,  engravings,  by  Hans  Hol- 
bein, 328 

Dante,  portrait  of,  by  Giotto,  319 

Decoration,  primitive,  277  ;  mural,  301 

Deductions  of  principles  governing  repre- 
sentation of  objects,  35,  37,  44,  56 

Definitions,  geometrical,  122 

De  Hoogh,  Peter,  331 

Delacroix,  Eugene,  334 

Delia  Robbia,  family  of,  326 

Delphic  sibyl,  by  Michelangelo,  323 

Design,  origin  of,  222  ;  principles  of,  223 

Diagonal,  125 

Diameter,  125 

Dimensioning,  132,  197 

Dimension  lines,  133 

Discus  thrower,  statue  by  Myron,  309 

Distance,  22;  effect  of,  37 

Distance  points,  60 

Dominant  harmony,  259 

Donatello,  326 

Doors,  for  house,  181 

Doors  of  the  baptistery  of  St.  John,  Pisa,  326 

Doric  capital,  307 

Doric  column,  307 

Dovetailed  joint,  138,  139 

Drawing  board,  104 

Drawing  by  Ingres,  t^t,-}, 

Drawing  to  scale,  133 

Drawings,  how  to  duplicate,  176 

Dry  method,  in  water-color,  31 

Duplicating  drawings,  176 

Diirer,  Albert,  327 

Dwelling,  two-story,  plan  of,  198;  vertical 
section,  199 ;  stairway,  200 ;  location  of 
windows,  204  ;  cellar  plan,  205  ;  elevation, 
204,  205,  206,  207 ;  roof  and  chimney 
construction,  208  ;  comfort  and  beauty  of 
interior,  209 


Early  painters,  318 

Easel  pictures,  317 

Eccentrics,  168 

Egypt,  map  of,  279;  people  and  customs, 
279;  religion,  280;  architecture  and  deco- 
ration, 280,  281 

Egyptian  ornament,  282,  284;  symbols,  280; 
wall  decoration,  283 

Elevation,  front  and  end  of  house,  183 

Elgin,  Lord,  310 

El  Greco,  331 

Ellipse,  126 

Ellipsoid,  128 

English  art,  337 

Entablature,  195 

Entasis,  221 


INDEX 


343 


Entombment  of  Christ,  by  Titian,  325 

Environment,  influence  of,  29S 

Equilateral  triangle,  124 

Erasers,  105 

Essential  features  of  a  simple  house,  188 

Etching,  273 

Expiession,  modes  of,  i 

Exercises  in  pictorial  representation,  6,  19, 
22,  23,  28,  29,  33 ;  in  perspective  drawing, 
36,  44,  52,  67  ;  in  figure  and  animal  draw- 
ing, 76,  79,  85,  86,  93,  94 ;  in  constructive 
drawing,  112,  113,  115,  117,  118,  119,  120, 
135.  136,  137.  139.  142,  149.  150,  151.  152. 
158,  159,  160,  161,  162,  163,  164,  166,  167  ; 
in  design,  224,  225,  227,  229,  231,  232,  234, 
235,  238,  239,  241,  242,  252,  253,  255,  256, 
257,  258,  260,  263,  264,  267,  269,  271,  274, 

Expression  of  ideas,  222 
Exterior  of  house,  beauty  of,  190 
Eye-level,  39 

Famous    artists    and    architecture    of    the 

Renaissance,  296 
Finder,  17,  18;  exercises  with,  19,  20,  21 
Field  Columbian  Museum,  Chicago,  300 
Figures  in  landscape,  26 
Figure  drawing,  71 
Fine  arts,  303 
Fixative,  29 
Flemish  art,  326 
Foreground,  22 

Foreshortening,  35,  36,  37,  38,  45,  78,  79 
Fra  Angelico,  319 
France,  arts  in,  333 
Free-hand  constructive  drawing,  137 
Free-hand  perspective,  34 
Free-hand   working  drawings,  exercises   in, 

139 
French  bride  chest,  231 
French  curves,  106,  109 
Fresco,  317 

Frustum  of  a  cone,  161 ;  of  a  pyramid,  162 
Furniture,  arrangement  of  in  house,  194,  247 

Gainsborough,  Thomas,  338 

Gargoil,  294 

Gears,  176 

Geometric  problems,  no,  iii,  112,  113,  114, 

115,  116,  117,  118,  119,  120,  121 
Geometrical  definitions,  122 
Georgia  Pines,  painting  by  George  Inness, 

240,  241 
Gericault,  Jean  Louis,  334. 
German  art,  326 
Ghiberti,  Lorenzo,  326 


Giorgione,  324 

Giotto,  318 

Gizeh,  pyramids  of,  281 

Gleaners,  by  Millet,  335 

Good  taste,  247 

Gothic  art,  293,  294 

Gothic    cathedrals,    293 ;     ornament,    294 ; 

architecture,  315  ;  sculpture  and  painting, 

316 
Graded  tones  in  black  and  white,  233 
Gravity,  center  of,  79,  84,  85 
Greek  art,  284;  originality  of,  305 
Greek    ornament,    284  ;    architecture,     284, 

285,  286,    307;  sculpture,  309;  sculptors, 

310,  311;  painting  and  painters,  312 
Greek  revival,  299 
Greek  vase,  312 
Ground  line,  59 
Grouping  of  objects  in  composition,  1 9,  20,  2 1 

Hals,  Frans,  330 

Harmony,  principle  of,  242  ;  in  related  ob- 
jects, 247;  violation  of,  248;  in  values 
and  colors,  249;  dominant,  259,  260 

Head  and  features  of  the  human  figure, 
proportions  of,  78 

Hellenistic  age  of  sculpture,  311 

Hermes  and  the  infant  Dionysus,  311 

Historic  Ornament,  277 

Hogarth,  William,  337 

Hokusai,  Japanese  artist,  234 

Holbein,  Hans,  328 

Holy  Night,  by  Correggio,  325 

Horizon  line,  39,  59 

Horizontal  line,  122 

Horse  trotting,  loi  ;  gallopmg,  loi 

House,  city,  drawings  for,  209;  walls  and 
chimneys,  212  ;  Hght  and  ventilation,  212  ; 
strength  and  solidity,  213;  arrangement 
of  rooms,  214 

House,  interior  of,  209,  217 

House,  simple,  plan  of,  iSo 

Houses  of  Parliament,  298 

Hue,  252,  253  _ 

Human  figure,  anatomy  of,  71  ;  proportions 
of,  71  ;  "head  as  the  measurement  of,  71  ; 
vary  with  age,  74  ;  skeleton  of,  81,  88,  89; 
muscles  of,  90 

Human  skeleton,  87,  88,  89 

Hunt,  Holman,  339 

Hunt,  William  Morris,  340 

ICTiNUS,  308 

Ideas,  expression  of,  222 

Impressionism,  336 

Indian  symbols,  277  "     •. 


344 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Ingres,  Jean  Auguste,  333 

Ink, 106 

Inking  in,  109,  185 

Inness,  George,  landscape  by,  240 

Instruments,     directions     for     using,     106 ; 

working  drawings  with,  135 
Interior,  of  house,  beauty  of,  209,  247 
Intersections  of  solids,  153 
Ionic  column  and  capital.  219,  307 
Irregular  curves,  106,  109 
Isochromatic  plate,  9,  10 
Isosceles  triangle,  124 
Italian  sculpture,  326 
Italy,  and  Gothic  Art,  316 

Jewel  casket,  276 

Jolly  Man,  painting,  by  Hals,  330 

Joints,  138,  139 

La  Farge,  John,  298 

Landscape,  by  Corot,  336 

Landscape  drawing,  21  ;  how  to  begin  study 

of,  22  ;  color  added  to,  22  ;  details  of,  23; 

figures  in,  26 
Landseer,  Sir  Edwin,  339 
Law,  obedience  to  in  study  of  design,  223 
Learning,  revival  of,  318 
Leather  modeUing,  267 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  321 
Lettering  and  planning  dimensions  of  house, 

197 
Library   building,  design  for,  215;  style  of 

architecture  for,  218 
Library  table,  details  of,  140 
Light  and  shade,  1 1 
Light,    effects    of   in    groups,   12  ;  in  house 

construction,  180,  212 
Line,  definition  of.  122 
Line  of  direction,  59,  62 
Lines,  vanishing,  40;  working,   133;  center, 

133;  dimension,  133;  cross,   133;  section, 

133 
Lintel,  211 

Locomotion,  in  animals,  100 
Lorraine,  Claude,  t^t^t, 
Lotus,  280 
Louvre,  297 
Lysippus,  311 

Machine  details,  167 

Madonna,  by  Cimabue,  318 

Man  with  fur  cap,  painting  by  Rembrandt, 

331 
Manet,  Edouard,  336 
Massaccio,  319 


Masses,  shapes  and  values  of,  i ;  study  of, 

2  ;  principal,  8 
Materials-,  directions  for  using,  106 
Measurements  of  the  human  body,  71 
Mechanical  or  constructive  drawing,  103 
Mechanical  perspective,  59 
Mediums  for  developing  designs,  274 
Memling,  Hans,  327 
Metal  work,  designs  for,  271 
Metopes  from  temple  at  Selinus,  308 
Michelangelo,  322 
Middle  distance,  22 
Millais,  J.  E.,  339 
Millet,  Jean  Francois,  335 
Miniature  house,  plan  of,  180 
Modelling  in  clay,  269 
Modelling  tools,  268 
Modern  architecture  and  ornament,  298 
Mona  Lisa,  by  da  Vinci,  322 
Monet,  Claude,  260.  336 
Monochromatic  color  schemes,  254 
Mortise,  138 
Mosaic    from    the    Congressional    Library, 

Washington,  D.  C,  302 
Moses,  statue  of,  by  Michelangelo,  322 
Mummy  case,  Egyptian,  283 
Mural  decoration,  283,  284,  291,  301 
Mural  paintings,  317 

Nicholson,  William,  drawing  by,  238 
Night  Watch,  painting,  by  Rembrandt,  260 
Note -book  cover,  development  of,  264 
Notre  Dame,  Paris,  315 
Nuts  and  bolts,  171,  172,  173 

Objects  at  45  degrees,  47 

Objects,  cyhndric  and  conical,  50 

Oblique  line,  122 

Oblique  perspective,  52 

Obtuse  angle,  123 

Obtuse-angled  triangle,  124 

Office  buildings,  300 

Oil  colors,  invention  of,  327 

Orders  of  architecture,  307 

Origin  of  design,  222 

Ornament,  historic,  277;  Egyptian,  280; 
Greek,  284;  Roman,  286;  Romanesque, 
288;  Byzantine,  288;  Saracenic,  Arabic, 
290;  Gothic,  293;  Renaissance,  296 

Orthographic  projection,  theory  of,  142 

Outline  drawing,  14 

Ovoid,  128 


Painters,  the  early,  318 
Painting  among  the  Greeks,  31 


INDEX 


345 


Painting,  rival  schools  of,  320 

Pantheon,  Rome,  287 

Paper,  for  drawings,  104 

Parabola,  154 

Parallel  lines,  122 

Parallel  perspective,  42 ;  vanishing  point  in, 
42,61' 

Parrhasios,  312 

Parthenon  at  Athens,  308;  restored,  285; 
sculpture  from  the  east  pediment,  310 

Parthenon  frieze,  ornament  from,  286 

Pencil  studies,  29 

Pencils,  104 

Perimeter,  125 

Perpendicular  lines,  123 

Perspective,  34 ;  parallel  free-hand,  42 ; 
fundamental  principles  of,  56;  parallel 
mechanical,  61;  mechanical,  59,  70; 
angular,  45, 46,  47,  48,  49,  63,  67  ;  cylindric 
and  conical  objects  in,  50,  51,  52  ;  oblique, 

Perspective  centers,  how  to  find,  56 

Pheidias,  310 

Piazza,  196 

Pictorial  quality,  4 

Pictorial  representation,  i 

Picture  plane,  59;  all  measurements  made 
upon,  61 

Plan  and  elevation  of  miniature  house,  180 ; 
doors  and  windows,  181 ;  roof  plan,  185 

Plane,  definition  of,  123 

Planes,  relationship  of,  60 

PUnth,  128,  143 

Point,  definition  of,  122 

Polygnotos  of  Thasos,  312 

Polygon,  125 

Pope  Innocent  X.  jwrtrait  by  Velasquez,  332 

Portrait  by  John  S.  Sargent,  250 

Portrait  of  Dante,  319 

Portrak  of  man,  by  Holbein,  328 

Portrait  sculpture  among  the  Romans,  313 

Portraiture,  Roman,  313 

Praxiteles,  311 

Pre-Raphaelites,  338 

Primary  colors,  250 

Primitive  decoration,  277,  278 

Principles  of  design,  statement  of,  223 

Printing,  wood-block,  265 

l-Vism,  127,  135,  13^.  151,  156,  164 

Problems  in  geometric  drawing,  no,  121  ;  in 
constructive  drawing,  in  et  seq.;  in  archi- 
tectural drawint;,  180,  186,  198,  209,  214 

Projection,  orthographic,  theory  of,  142 

Prop,")rtions  of  the  human  figure,  71;  vary 
witP  ^gS'  74 ;  <^f  the  head  and  features,  78 

Publii   building,  plans  for,  214 

Public  library,  design  for,  215 


Pulley,  176 
Pyramid,  127,  165 
Pyramids  of  Gizeh,  282 

Quadrant,  126 
Quadrilateral,  124 


Rabbet-joint,  139 

Radius,  126 

Raft  of  the  Medusa,  by  Gericault,  334 

Rake's  Progress,  painting  by  Hogarth,  337 

Raphael,  322,  323,  324;  portrait  of,  323 

Rectangle,  124 

Reflections  from  polished  surfaces,  13 

Regular  polygon,  125 

Relationship  between  objects,  21 

Rembrandt,  van  Rijn,  260,  330 

Renaissance,  296 

Reynolds,  Joshua,  337 

Rhomboid,  124 

Rhombus,  124 

Rhythm,  principles  of,  223  ;  forms  of,  224, 

225,  226;  structural,  228;  in  constructive 

design,  230;  of  values,  232 
Right  angle,  123 
Right-angled  triangle,  123 
Roman  art,  286;  ornament,  288 
Roman  Colosseum,  313 
Roman  Doric  order,  307 
Roman  portraiture,  313 
Romanesque    art,    288;    architecture,   314; 

example  of,  298 
Romantic  movement,  334 
Roof  plan  of  small  house,  185 
Roof,  types  of,  190;  construction  of,  208 
Rooms,  arrangement  of,  in  city  house,  214 
Rosa  Bonheur,  336 
Rosa  Triplex,  by  Rosetti,  338 
Rosetti,  339 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  329 
Ruling  pen,  106,  109 
Ruskin,  John,  338,  339 
Ruysdael,  Jacob,  331 

Saracenic  Art,  290  ;  wall  ornament,  291 
Sargent,  John  S.,  portrait  by,  250 
Scale,  104;  drawing  to,  133 
Scalene  triangle,  124 
Schools  of  painting,  rival,  320 
Screws,  168,  170,  171 
Sculptors  of  the  best  period,  310,  311 
Sculpture,  early  Greek,  309  ;  ItaUan,  326 
Sculpture  and  painting  as  related  to  archi- 
tecture, 304 
Sector,  126 


346 


ART  EDUCATION—  HIGH  SCHOOL 


Segment,  126 

Semicircle,  126 

Shadow-box,  12,  13 

Sibyl,  Cumaean,  227 

Sistine  Madonna,  by  Raphael,  324 

Sixteenth  century  chest,  246 

Skeleton,  human,  87  et  j^y-;' compared  with 
that  of  animals,  95,  96 ;  of  cat,  95 ;  of 
dog,  96;  of  horse,  96;  of  cow,  97 

Sky-line,  39,  226 

Sky-scraper,  modern,  301 

SoHd,  123 

Solids,  intersections  of,  153 

Spanish  art,  331 

Specifications,  for  house  construction,  197 

Sphere.  126 

Sphinx  and  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  282 

Square,  124 

St.  Mark  and  St.  Paul,  painting  by  Albert 
Diirer,  327 

St.  Mark's  Cathedral,  Venice,  290 

St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  315 

St.  Peter's,  Rome,  296 

St.  Sophia,  capitals   from,  2S9;   church  of, 

314 
Stained  glass,  304,  316 
Stairway  of  house,  200 
Statement  of  principles,  in  design,  223 
Station  point,  59 
Steel  construction,  300 
Stencil,  development  of,  261 
Still-life  drawing,  .26,  27,  28 
Still-life  objects,  arrangement  of,  12,  13,  19; 

studies  with  charcoal,  27 
Stuart,  Gilbert,  339 
Surface,  definition  of,  123 
Surfaces,  development  of,  159 
Surrender  at  Breda,  painting  by  Velasquez, 

332 


Taj  Mehal,  292 

Tangent,  126 

Tangential  union  of  lines,  50 

Temple  at  Selinus,  308 

Tenon, 138 

Textures,  expressed  in  outline, 

Thumb  tacks,  104 

Tintoretto,  325 

Titian  (Tiziano  VecelH),  325 

Tones  in  black  and  white,  233 


Tongue  and  groove  joint,  139 

Tracing,  176 

Transferring  designs,  225 

Trapezium,  124 

Trapezoid,  125 

Treatment,  mode  of,  in  decorative  design,  244 

Triangles,  105 

Trinity  Church,  Boston,  29S 

Troyan,  Constant,  335 

Truncated  cone,  127 

T  Square,  105,  107,   108 

Turner,  J.  M.  W.,  338 

Tuscan  order  of  architecture,  307 

United  States,  arts  in,  339 

United  States  Capitol,  Washington,  299 

Value  scale,  233 

Values,   comparative,  6  ;   color,    rhythm  of, 

232 
Van  Dyck,  Sir  Anthony,  329 
Van  Eyck,  Hubert  and  Jan,  327 
Vanishing  lines,  40 
Vanishing   point,    to  determine,  42 ;  always 

on  horizon  line,  49 
Vase  forms,  230,  231 
Vedder,  Elihu,  227,  302 
Velasquez,  Diego  Rodriguez  de  Silva,  331 
Venetians",  320,  324 
Venetian  table,  232 
Ventilation  of  city  house,  212 
Veronese,  Paul,  325 
Vertical  line,  122 
Vertical  section  of.  house,  199 
Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  321 

Wall  shelf,  141 

Washington,  George,  portrait  of,  339 

Water-color  handling,  31  ;  wet  method,  31 ; 
dry  method,  31 

Wave,  painting  by  Hokusai  showing  rhyth- 
mic lines,  234 

West,  Benjamin,  339 

Wet  method,  in  water-color,  31 

Windows,  181  ;  location  of,  204 

Zeus,  head  of,  from  Mylasa,  310  ;  Olympiau, 

311 
Zeuxis,  312 


OUTLINE    in   DRAWING 

!N  !N  TO  ACCOMPANY         ^  In 

ART    EDUCATION     for 
HIGH     SCHOOLS     !at     ^ 

A  SUGGESTIVE  COURSE  of  STUDY  in  ART 
for  FOUR  YEARS  of  HIGH  SCHOOL  WORK 


,the:    prang     company 

NEW  YORK        CHICAGO        BOSTON        ATLANTA        DALLAS 


OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


INTRODUCTORY  NOTE. 

These  outlines  are  based  upon  the  supposition  that  two  periods  a 
week,  of  fifty  minutes  each,  are  given  in  the  first  two  years,  and  one 
period  a  week,  of  fifty  minutes  or  an  hour,  is  given  in  the  last  two 
years.  It  is  felt  that  a  course  in  art  study  for  the  first  year  in  the  high 
school  should  be  general  enough  in  its  character  to  equip,  as  far  as  is 
possible,  the  student  who  may  have  but  one  year  of  high  school  train- 
ing with  an  understanding  of  such  art  principles  as  will  have  a  direct 
bearing  upon  his  life.  Every  person  of  education  should  understand 
something  of  the  laws  of  growth  and  their  exemplification,  as  shown 
in  plants  and  flowers  (September  outline,  first  year)  ;  of  landscape 
shapes  and  efifects  (October  outline,  first  year)  ;  of  the  representation 
of  the  forms,  proportions  and  colors  of  objects  (November  outline,  first 
year)  ;  of  the  elementary  laws  of  perspective  (January  outline,  first 
year)  ;  of  the  language  of  constructive  drawing,  and  of  the  commoner 
geometric  problems  (February  outline,  first  year)  ;  and  finally  of  the 
principles  of  design,  which  are  universal  in  their  application.  This  rea- 
soning is  from  the  standpoint  of  general  education.  If,  however,  it 
seems  best  to  vary  this  course  to  fit  local  needs,  further  work  in  con- 
structive or  architectural  drawing  may  be  substituted  for  a  portion  of 
the  work  in  design. 


OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

I' 

FIRST  YEAR  IN  HIGH  SCHOOL. 
(Ninth  Grade.) 

SEPTEMBER. 

Pictorial  Representation  :  Plants  and  Flowers. — Chapter  I,  pp.  1 
to  10,  down  to  paragraph  "Color  Quahty."  Students  should  prepare 
for  recitation  by  study  of  certain  paragraphs  assigned;  they  should 
recite  from  paragraph  headings,  and  discuss  in  class  the  illustrations  in 
the  book,  together  with  such  additional  illustrations  as  it  is  possible 
to  obtain.  They  should  draw  from  large  growths  of  grasses,  sedges, 
weeds,  flowers  or  fruits  in  outline,  in  neutral  washes  or  in  color,  as  the 
study  suggests.  For  such  work,  use  large  sized  paper,  in  light,  grayed 
tints.  When  sketches  are  finished,  students  should  use  a  finder  (see  pp. 
18  and  19)  to  select  interesting  compositions,  and  should  trim  and 
mount  the  selection  upon  a  mat  of  tinted  paper  of  harmonious  tone.  The 
mount,  as  a  general  rule,  should  be  grayer  in  its  color  quality  than  the 
dominating  color  of  the  sketch.     (See  color  plate  facing  p.  12.) 

OCTOBER. 

Pictorial  Representation:  Landscape  Composition. — Chapter  I. 
pp.  10  to  26,  down  to  paragraph  "Figures  in  the  Landscape."  Study 
text,  and  discuss  in  class.  As  a  further  exemplification  of  the  points 
developed,  students  may  select  from  a  photograph  or  from  a  black- 
board sketch  an  interesting  composition ;  then  with  neutral  washes,  or 
with  charcoal,  they  make  diflferent  value  arrangements,  using  the  same 
composition  in  a  variety  of  ways.  See  Fig.  32,  p.  23.  This  illustra- 
tion may  form  the  basis  of  an  exercise  of  this  kind :  make  a  tracing 
of  the  shapes  and  fill  them  in  with  a  value  arrangement,  not  like  that 
in  the  picture.  For  example,  the  sky  might  be  dark,  as  at  night,  or  as 
in  a  storm ;  the  ground  might  be  lighter,  as  in  winter ;  trees  in  the  fore- 
ground might  be  lighter  or  darker  than  the  values  of  those  in  the  pic- 
ture ;  water  in  the  foreground  might  be  the  same  value  as  sky,  etc. 
Landscapes  in  simple  values  like  these  are  effective  when  done  on 
tinted  paper  with  flat  washes  of  neutral  gray,  or  on  tinted  paper  in 
monotones ;  as,  in  sepia  tones  on  bufif  paper ;  in  blue  tones  on  warm 
gray  paper ;  in  green  tones  on  bogus  paper,  etc.  Such  studies  when 
trimmed  and  mounted  may  be  used  as  decorations  for  magazine  cov- 
ers, calendars,  portfolios,  etc. 

NOVEMBER. 

Pictorial  Representation:  Still-life  Composition. — "Still-life 
Drawing,"  p.  26.  Study  and  discuss  the  text  and  illustrations  on 
pp.  19,  20  and  21,  down  to  paragraph  "Landscape  Drawin-g."  Practice 
pencil  sketching  from  carefully  placed  objects  of  contrasting  values, 
similar  to  those  objects  represented  in  Figs.  4,  5,  8,  9,  14,  18  and  19. 
Draw,  also,  in  charcoal  outline   from  simple  groups  of  two  objects, 


OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


using  colored  chalk  as  an  added  element  of  interest,  as  illustrated  in 
color  plate  facing  p.  33.  See  "The  Use  of  Colored  Chalks  or  Cray- 
ons," p.  33. 


DECEMBER. 

Applied  Design. — The  work  of  this  month  should  be  the  making 
of  some  article  planned  in  the  drawing  period.  See  paragraph  "The 
Development  of  a  Note-book  Cover,"  pp.  264  and  265.  The  construc- 
tive process  therein  described  may  be  applied  to  the  making  of  covers 
of  different  shapes,  sizes  and  proportions,  to  fit  any  need.  The  student 
should  use  as  a  decorative  feature  some  exercise  of  the  past  three 
months.  For  example,  a  portfolio  or  book-cover  may  be  decorated 
with  one  of  the  tonal  landscapes  done  in  October ;  or  an  alburn  may 
be  decorated  with  a  flower  panel ;  or  a  calendar  mount  may  be  deco- 
rated with  a  landscape  or  flower  motive ;  or  the  cover  of  a  blank 
recipe  book  may  be  decorated  with  an  arrangement  of  still-life  forms 
in  color  values. 

JANUARY. 

Perspective. — Chapter  II,  p.  34.  Definite  paragraphs  should  be 
assigned  for  study,  followed  by  a  full  discussion  in  class  of  all  the 
principles  presented.  The  text-book  will  be  found  invaluable  in  mas- 
tering perspective,  as  this  is  a  science  that  is  demonstrated  and  proved 
in  the  text,  where  the  rules  are  concisely  and  definitely  stated.  Give 
Exercises  I  to  IV,  p.  36,  and  Exercises  VI  and  VI I,  p.  44.  Stu- 
dents should  memorize  the  rules  given  and  be  able  to  demonstrate  by 
quick  sketches  the  principles  involved.  Cover  the  ground  to  "Angular 
Perspective,"  p.  45. 

FEBRUARY. 

Constructive  Draiving. — Chapter  IV,  p.  103.  Study  and  discuss 
in  class  the  text  from  beginning  of  chapter  to  "Geometric  Problems," 
p.  110.  Students  should  be  familiar  with  the  various  instruments  and 
by  their  use  should  practice  drawing  various  lines,  curves,  etc.,  before 
taking  up  problems.  When  this  ground  has  been  covered,  the  teacher 
should  select  twelve  of  the  elementary  geometric  problems  ("Geometric 
Problems,"  p.  110)  and  should  see  that  these  are  very  carefully  ar- 
ranged and  accurately  drawn,  as  directed  in  the  text.  The  work  should 
be  done  in  pencil  first  and  then  inked  in.  This  will  necessitate  the 
making  of  three  plates,  which  should  be  properly  lettered,  etc.  Stu- 
dents should  familiarize  themselves  with  the  geometric  definitions  given 
on  pp.  122  to  128.  If  much  of  the  work  of  this  month  has  already  been 
given  in  the  grades  below  the  high  school,  the  class  may  proceed  to 
the  study  of  Working  Drawings,  pp.  129  to  135,  and  work  out  the 
exercises  suggested  on  these  pages. 


OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


MARCH. 

Design  (See  "Introductory  Note,"  p.  1).— Chapter  VI,  p.  222. 
Study  text  from  beginning  of  chapter  to  Exercise  I,  p.  224.  These 
paragraphs  should  be  thoroughly  discussed  in  class,  as  they  present 
most  interesting  and  important  principles.  When  this  has  been  done, 
students  will  be  ready  for  Exercise  I.  p.  224.  The  working  out  of  this 
exercise  should  be  followed  by  a  class  criticism  of  all  work  done. 
(By  "class  criticism"  is  meant  the  posting  upon  a  screen  of  the  work 
of  each  student,  and  the  discussion  and  criticism  before  the  class  of 
the  results  of  an  exercise.  This  gives  each  student  the  benefit  of  the 
experience  of  all  other  students.) 

Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  look  for  examples  of  straight  line 
rhythm  in  rugs,  baskets,  textiles,  prints,  etc.,  and  to  bring  to  class  as 
many  of  these  examples  as  possible.  In  the  class  the  merits  of  these 
examples  should  be  discussed,  and  the  best  designs  reproduced  by  the. 
student,  or  used  as  the  basis  for  modifications.  Exercises  II  and  III 
may  then  be  worked  out  in  class,  with  similar  supplementary  sugges- 
tions and  enrichment.  The  bringing  in  of  material  or  motives  by  both 
teacher  and  pupil  gives  local  interest  and  vitalizes  the  work. 

APRIL. 

Design:  The  Principle  of  Rhythm.— Study  pp.  225.  226  and  227  to 
Exercise  IV^  In  discussing  this  form  of  rhythm  a  variety  of  mate- 
rials may  be  brought  into  class.  Plants,  flowers  and  growths  of  almost 
any  kind  illustrate  rhythm,  and  beautiful  examples  of  this  principle  may 
be  found  in  many  Japanese  prints,  in  landscape  compositions,  etc. 
After  thorough  discussion  of  this  new  form  of  rhythm,  students  should 
work  out  Exercise  IV  in  class.  The  working  out  of  this  problem  may 
take  several  lessons.  Follow  with  Exercise  V.  Do  not  fail  to  give 
students  the  benefit  of  class  criticism  of  results. 

MAY. 

Design:  The  Principle  of  Balance. — Study  pp.  235  to  239,  down  to 
paragraph  "The  Further  Application  of  Balance."  Discuss  this  subject 
matter  in  class,  paragraph  by  paragraph,  as  in  the  study  of  Rhythm. 
Select  from  the  exercises  given  on  pp.  238  and  239  those  problems 
that  it  will  be  possible  to  work  out  in  class. 

JUNE. 

Design:  The  Principle  of  Harmony. — Study  pp.  242  to  249.  to 
"Harmony  in  Values  and  Colors."  Discuss  fully  in  class.  Bring  in 
common  examples  of  harmony  and  also  examples  of  a  violation  of  har- 
mony, and  show  how  these  violations  might  be  corrected. 

As  a  finishing  touch  to  the  year's  work,  try  to  arrange  a  lesson  in 
the  practical  application  of  the  principles  studied.-    Refer  to  pp.  261, 


OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


262  and  263  for  suggestions  on  "The  Development  of  a  Stencil."  Or, 
make  a  desk-pad,  a  portfolio,  or  a  note-book.  See  p.  264,  "The  Devel- 
opment of  a  Note-book  Cover,"  The  teacher  may  select  an  exercise 
from  these  suggestions,  and  plan  lessons  to  suit  the  time  and  the  local 
conditions. 


SECOND  YEAR  IN  HIGH  SCHOOL. 
(Tenth  Grade.) 

SEPTEMBER. 

Pictorial  Representation:  Details  of  the  Landscape  in  Pencil  Ren- 
dering.— Review  "Landscape  Drawing,"  pp.  21  and  22,  and  study 
"Details  of  the  Landscape"  and  "Accents,"  pp.  23  to  26.  Students 
may  copy  for  pencil  technique  the  sketch  of  the  tree  shown  in  Fig.  3, 
p.  3.  They  may  then  select  with  a  finder  a  composition  from  the  color 
plate  facing  p.  34,  and  translate  it  into  a  pencil  sketch.  In  a  similar 
way,  translate  Fig.  13,  p.  39.  The  landscape  details  shown  on  p.  25 
may  also  be  copied  and  enlarged.  After  this  preliminary  work,  stu- 
dents should  attempt  other  things  of  this  kind, — objects  seen  from  the 
schoolroom  windows,  or  about  home,  such  as  towers,  roofs,  chimneys, 
rocks,  gateways,  dormer  windows,  etc.  Paper  of  light  tint,  such  as 
gray  or  bufif,  may  be  used  for  this  work  with  artistic  eflfect. 


OCTOBER. 

Perspective. — Study  in  review  pp.  33  to  45.  Give  exercises  to  test 
the  students'  understanding  of  these  principles.  Study  paragraphs 
"Angular  Perspective,"  p.  45,  "Objects  at  45  Degrees,"  p.  47,  and 
"Study  of  the  Open  Door,"  pp.  48  to  50.  The  text  given  offers  a  fine 
opportunity  for  the  student  to  familiarize  himself  with  the  principles 
of  perspective,  with  the  added  advantage  to  him  of  personal  effort  and 
investigation.  He  does  not  depend  solely  on  the  teacher  for  what  he 
learns.  Work  out  exercises  suggested  in  the  paragraphs  above  referred 
to.  Fig.  28,  p.  49,  suggests  some  of  the  objects  that  may  be  drawn  in 
angular  perspective.  Make  artistic  pencil  sketches  of  a  corner  of  a 
room,  a  building,  a  portion  of  a  roof  seen  from  a  window,  a  staircase, 
etc.  Such  subjects  may  be  drawn  in  outline  only,  as  perspective  tests, 
or  they  may  be  finished  in  values.  Too  often  the  subject  of  perspective 
is  dry  and  uninteresting  because  it  is  treated  with  an  entire  absence  of 
art  feeling. 


OUTUNE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


NOVEMBER. 

Constructive  Drazmng.— Geometric  Problems.  Give  twelve  or 
more  problems  in  addition'  to  those  given  in  the  first  year,  selected  from 
the  problems  on  pp.  Ill  to  122.  These  problems  should  be  drawn  accu- 
rately on  well  arranged  plates,  and  should  be  carefully  inked  in  and 
lettered,  with  due  attention  to  all  conventions,  and  to  quality  of  line. 
Review'"Working  Drawings,"  pp.  129,  130,  131  and  132 ;  "Dimension- 
ing," p.  132 ;  "Drawing  to  Scale,"  pp.  133  and  134.  Study  new  matter, 
"To  Make  Working  Drawings  with  Instruments,"  pp.  135  to  137; 
"Free  Hand  Constructive  Drawing,"  pp.  137  to  139;  "Free  Hand 
Working  Drawings,"  pp.  139  to  142,  and  "Theory  of  Orthographic 
Projection,"  pp.  142  to  153.  Select  exercises  from  these  pages  as  time 
permits.  A  sufficient  number  of  these  problems  should  be  worked  out 
to  insure  a  clear  understanding  of  the  principles  explained  in  the  text. 
Here  again  the  text-book  will  be  found  of  great  assistance,  because  it 
states  so  clearly  the  principles  that  must  be  mastered  before  construc- 
tive drawing  can  be  intelligently  worked  out.  When  the  student  de- 
pends only  on  the  teacher  for  the  presentation  and  explanation  of  these 
principles',  time  is  consumed  that  might  better  be  devoted  to  carrying 
the  subject  further. 


DECEMBER. 

Architectural  Drawing.— Chapter  V,  p.  179.  Study  and  discuss  in 
class  "The  Need  of  Buildings"  and  "Conditions  of  Construction," 
p.  179;  "Conventions,"  p.  180.  Study  Problem  I— "A  Miniature 
House,"  pp.  180  to  186.  This  problem  should  be  worked  out  m  a 
plate.  See  p.  183.  If  the  teacher  thinks  best,  the  dimensions  may  be 
slightly  changed,  so  that  the  exercise  becomes  something  more  than  a 
copy  of  the  plate  given  in  the  book. 

JANUARY   AND  FEBRUARY. 

Architectural  Drawing:  A  One-Story  Cottage.— Frohlem  II,  pp. 
186  to  198.  The  text  on  these  pages  should  be  fully  discussed  m  class, 
the  discussion  on  "Essential  Features"  preceding  any  drawing.  Each 
student  should  submit  a  rough  sketch  of  the  ground-plan  of  the  house 
he  intends  to  design  following  the  suggestions  of  the  text  on  p.  190. 
After  these  sketches  have  be&n  made  the  basis  of  a  class  criticism,  the 
students  should  proceed  to  work  out  with  instruments  a  set  of  plans 
and  elevations  similar  to  those  in  Figs.  11,  12  and  13,  pp.  187,  188  and 
189  A  knowledge  and  understanding  of  the  text  on  "The  Kitchen, ^^ 
p.  193,  "The  Living  Room,"  "The  Bed  Room"  and  "The  Bath-room,^^ 
pp  194  and  195,  "'Ceilings,"  "Windows  and  Doors,"  "The  Chimney, 
"The  Piazza,"  etc.,  pp.  195  to  198,  is  essential  to  the  successful  work- 
ing out  of  these  plans. 


OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


MARCH.* 

Design.—Review  pages  222  to  228,  giving-  exercises  in  review  at 
discretion  of  teacher.  Study  and  discuss  in  class  "Structural  Rhythm," 
pp.  228  and  229.  Find  practical  examples  in  school-room.  Work  out 
Exercises  VI,  VII  and  VIII,  pp.  229  and  230.  Then  study  "Rhythm 
in  Constructive  Design,"  pp.  230,  231  and  232,  to  "Rhythm  of  Values." 
Work  out  Exercises  IX  and  X,  pp.  231  and  232. 

APRIL. 

Design:  The  Principle  of  Balance. — Review  from  paragraph  "The 
Principle  of  Balance,"  p.  235,  to  paragraph  "Further  Application  of 
Balance,"  p.  239.  Work  out  such  problems  as  seem  advisable,  selecting 
from  those  suggested  in  the  text.  Bring  in  examples  of  balance  as 
exemplified  in  fabrics,  still-life  forms,  photographs  and  illustrations, 
etc.  Try  to  lead  students  to  an  appreciation  of  the  meaning  of  bal- 
ance in  the  objects  everywhere  surrounding  them.  Study  "Further 
Applications  of  Balance,"  p.  239,  to  "The  Principles  of  Harmony," 
p.  242.  Select  from  Exercises  XIX  to  XXIII  problems  to  be  worked 
out  in  class. 

MAY. 

Design:  The  Principle  of  Harmony. — Review  pp.  242  to  249. 
Discuss  again  these  points  in  class.  Study  "Harmony  in  Values  and 
Colors,"  p.  249,  to  "Color  Intensity  or  Chroma,"  p.  252.  Work  out 
Exercise  XXIV,  p.  252,  in  several  different  colors. 

JUNE. 

Applied  Design. — Read  "Note,"  p.  261.  Select  for  class  work  one 
or  more  of  the  exercises  given  in  the  problem  stated  on  pp.  261  to  276. 
Be  sure  that  each  student  makes,  as  a  climax  to  the  year's  work,  some 
article  that  is  artistically  worthy  and  is  of  practical  use. 


THIRD  YEAR  IN  HIGH  SCHOOL. 
(Eleventh  Grade.) 

SEPTEMBER. 

Pictorial   Representation:     Still-life   Studies   in  Pencil. — Review 
paragraph  "Still-life  Drawing,"  pp.  26  and  27.    Study  paragraph  "Pen- 

*As  an  option  more  work  may  be  given  in  Architectural  drawing.  Problem  III,  pp.  198  to 
209,  presents  a  practical  series  of  plans  and  elevations  for  a  detached  two-story  dwelling. 
The  working  oi:t  of  this  problem  together  with  the  study  of  the  accompanying  text,  will  so 
equip  the  student  that  he  will  be  able  to  draught  the  plans  necessary  for  the  building  of  an 
ordinary   dwelling. 


OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


cil  Studies,"  pp.  29  and  31.  Arrange  still-life  studies,  such  as  the 
following:  a  spray  of  goldenrod  in  a  tall  vase,  the  vase  showing  con- 
trasting values ;  a  twig  bearing  rosehips,  gathered  before  the  leaves 
have  fallen,  placed  in  a  vase  whose  value  contrasts  with  the  value  of 
the  growth ;  a  growth  of  flowering  bean,  bearing  flowers,  seedpods 
and  leaves,  placed  in  a  suitable  vase ;  a  growth  of  teazle  or  thistle  in 
a  "light  and  dark"  jar,  etc.  Or,  simple  groups  of  still-life  forms  alone, 
of  contrasting  values,  may  be  drawn.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
beauty  of  pencil  rendering  depends  largely  on  what  may  be  called  its 
brilliancy  and  "snap"  rather  than  upon  the  subtle  differences  between 
values  which  can  best  be  expressed  in  color.  In  pencil  rendering  the 
most  effective  results  can  be  obtained  by  using  a  hard  finished  paper 
of  light  tint,  such  as  buff  or  warm  gray.  Give  class  criticisms  fre- 
quently. 


OCTOBER. 

Pictorial  Representation:  Still-life  Studies  in  Charcoal. — Study 
paragraph  "Still-life  Studies  with  Charcoal,"  pp.  27,  28  and  29.  Figs.  37 
and  38,  p.  29,  and  Fig.  39,  p.  30,  show  three  steps  in  the  process  of  a 
charcoal  drawing  of  a  group  of  objects.  Other  arrangements  are  shown 
in  Fig.  10,  p.  7,  and  in  Fig.  40,  p.  32.  Students  should  make  similar 
arrangements,  placing  the  groups  against  a  suitable  background,  as 
shown  in  the  illustrations.  In  drawing  these  arrangements,  follow  the 
instructions  given  in  the  text.  Another  class  of  material  that  lends 
itself  well  to  this  tonal  work  in  charcoal  is  an  arrangement  of  flowers 
in  still-life  forms.  Large  growths  such  as  chrysanthemums  or  dahlias 
are  better  adapted  to  this  treatment  than  smaller  flowers. 


NOVEMBER. 

Figure  and  Animal  Drazving. — Chapter  III,  p.  71.  Study  and  dis- 
cuss in  class  "Knowledge  of  Anatomy,"  "General  Proportions,"  "Pro- 
portionate Widths,"  "Proportionate  Depths,"  "Proportions  Vary  with 
■^g^/'  PP-  ^1  to  76.  Students  are  to  work  out  Exercise  I,  p.  76,  at 
home,  and  bring  results  to  class  for  criticism.  They  are  to  work  out 
Exercise  II,  pp.  76  and  78,  in  class.  The  pencil  may  be  used  for  this 
work,  as  shown  in  Figs.  8  and  9,  p.  77,  or  the  sketching  may  be  done 
in  charcoal.     Practice  as  many  such  exercises  as  time  permits. 


DECEMBER. 

Figure  and  Animal  Drawing. — Study  "Proportions  of  the  Head 
and  Features,"  p.  78.  Work  out  Exercises  III  and  IV,  p.  79.  Study 
"Action,"  p.  79.  The  students  should  proceed  in  their  own  work  after 
the  manner  suggested  in  Exercise  V,  p.  79,  and  as  exemplified  in 
Figs.  15  and  16.  pp.  82  and  83.  If  there  is  time,  study  "Balance," 
pp.  79,  84  and  85.    Work  out  Exercises  VI  and  VII,  pp.  85  and  86. 


OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


JANUARY. 

Perspective. — Review  points  indicated  in  paragraph  headings  of 
this  chapter,  up  to  "Turned  CyHndric  and  Conical  Objects,"  p.  50. 
Study  and  discuss  in  class  "Turned  Cylindric  and  Conical  Objects," 
p.  50,  and  work  out  Exercises  VIII,  IX  and  X,  p.  52.  Study  and 
demonstrate,  in  class,  "Oblique  Perspective,"  pp.  52  to  56  inclusive. 
Here  again  the  fact  that  the  student  will  be  able  by  a  study  of  the  text 
to  prepare  a  large  part  of  this  work  before  coming  to  class  will  mate- 
rially lessen  the  w^ork  of  the  teacher,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  there  will 
result  a  clearer  understanding  of  the  principles  on  the  part  of  the  stu- 
dent. In  working  out  exercises  similar  to  those  shown  in  Figs.  36,  37, 
38  and  39,  pp.  53.  54  and  55,  the  student  should  draw  upon  paper  of  a 
size  sufficiently  large  to  provide  for  the  placing  of  horizon  line  and 
vanishing  points  on  the  sheet. 

FEBRUARY. 

Constructive  Drazviiig. — Review  "Theory  of  Orthographic  Projec- 
tion," pp.  142  to  152.  Study  and  discuss  in  class  "Cutting  Planes, 
Intersections  of  Solids  and  Developments,"  pp.  153  to  159,  down  to 
■"The  Development  of  Surfaces."  Select  exercises  from  those  given 
on  pp.  158  and  159,  to  test  the  understanding  of  the  students. 

MARCH.* 

Desis^n.— Review  pp.  222  to  232.  Study  "Rhythm  of  Values," 
pp.  232  to  234.  Work  out  Exercises  XI  and  XII.  As  an  additional 
problem,  let  the  students  make  a  decorative  landscape  composition  in 
outline,  using  tinted  paper,  and  filling  in  the  shapes  with  four  tones  of 
neutral  values,  taken  from  the  value  scale  made  in  Exercise  XL 

APRIL. 

Design. — Review  "Harmony  in  Values  and  Colors,"  p.  249,  and 
■"Color  Properties,"  p.  252.  Study  "Color  Intensity  or  Chroma,"  pp.  252, 
253  and  ^54,  to  "Color  Schemes."  Work  out  Exercises  XXV  and 
XXVI. 

MAY. 

Design:  Color  Schemes. — Study  "Color  Schemes,"  and  "Mono- 
chromatic Color  Schemes,"  p.  254.  Work  out  Exercises  XXVII  and 
XXVIII,  p.  255.  In  addition,  students  may  plan  a  design  for  a 
surface  covering,  or  they  may  make  a  decorative  flower  panel,  and 
color  it  with  three  or  four  tones  from  a  monochromatic  color  scheme. 
If  such  an  exercise  is  placed  on  tinted  paper,  the  color  of  the  paper  may 
be  taken  for  one  of  the  tones  or  steps  of  the  scheme. 

*At  this  time  the  teacher  must  again  choose  what  subject  she  wishes  to  emphasize  in  this 
year.  If  there  is  a  demand  for  more  construction  or  more  architectural  di awing,  plenty  of 
material  for  each  study  will  be  found  in  Chapters  I\'  and  V.  The  teacher  may  select  from 
this  material  the  amount  of  work  she  thinks  the  student  should  cover.  It  is  impossible  to  lay 
out  a  definite  course  in  these  branches,  without  knowing  the  local  conditions,  as  to  equipment, 
previous  work  done,  requirements  of  the  school,  etc.  In  small  classes,  it  may  be  possible 
for  the  girls  to  follow  the  course  in  Design,  as  given  in  this  outline,  while  the  boys  follow 
a  course  in  mechanical  or  architectural  dra^ving.  Or,  as  in  some  schools,  the  boys  follow 
a  course  in  shop'work,  while  the  girls  study  domestic  science,  or  some  other  laboratory  work. 


10  OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


JUNE. 

Design:  Complementary  Color  Schemes. — Study  "Complementary 
Color  Schemes,"  pp.  255  and  256.  Work  out  Exercises  XXIX,  XXX, 
XXXI,  XXXII  and  XXXIII,  pp.  256  and  257.  Make  a  practical 
application  of  the  use  of  these  color  schemes.  Suggestions  for  work- 
ing out  some  construction  in  which  these  color  schemes  may  be  applied 
will  be  found  in  the  problems  given  in  Exercises  XLIII  to  LI,  pp.  261 
to  275. 


FOURTH  YEAR  IN  HIGH  SCHOOL. 
(Twelfth  Grade.) 

SEPTEMBER. 

Pictorial  Representation:  Pencil  Studies  from  the  Landscape. — 
Select  with  a  finder  from  Fig.  13,  p.  10,  some  interesting  portion  for  a 
pencil  sketch.  Read  again  "Principal  Masses  and  Masses  of  Lesser 
Interest"  and  "Color  Values,"  pp.  8  and  9.  Work  on  paper  of  a  light, 
warm,  gray  tint,  and  when  the  sketch  is  finished  in  full  pencil  values, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  33,  p.  24,  add  thin  touches  of  water  color,  as  shown  in 
color  plate  facing  p.  24.  In  connection  with  this  work,  study  "Color 
Added  to  a  Pencil  Sketch  of  the  Landscape,"  p.  22. 

The  same  treatment  of  translation  into  pencil  rendering,  with  color 
added,  may  be  applied  to  Fig.  12,  p.  9,  Fig.  35,  p.  27,  and  Fig.  36^  p.  28. 

OCTOBER. 


Pictorial  Representation:  Still-life.— Rewiew  "Still-life  Drawmg" 
and  "Still-life  Studies  with  Charcoal,"  pp.  26,  27  and  28.  Arrange  still- 
life  groups  showing  contrasts  of  values  and  also  suggesting  good  color 
combinations.  Work  out  these  studies  in  a  way  similar  to  the  process 
shown  in  Figs.  37,  38  and  39,  pp.  29  and  30.  When  the  sketch  is  fin- 
ished, apply  fixative,  as  directed  at  the  bottom  of  p.  28.  Very  interest- 
ing color  effects  may  be  obtained  by  applying  water  colors  to  the  char- 
coal study.  See  "Color  Added  to  Charcoal  Drawings,"  p.  33.  For  a 
variation  of  this  work,  arrange  studies  containing  flowers  or  fruits  with 
suitable  still-life  forms ;  as,  some  apples  and  a  brass  saucepan ;  green 
and  red  peppers  with  a  brown  casserole ;  oranges,  a  bowl  and  a  blue 
plate  behind ;  a  green  gourd  or  squash  with  porcelain-lined  iron  kettle ; 
a  pumpkin  or  squash  "blossom  with  its  foliage ;  some  hydrangea  blos- 
soms in  a  copper  jardiniere,  etc. 


OUTUNE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  1 1 


NOVEMBER. 

Figure  and  Animal  Drawing. — Read  "Bone  Construction,"  p.  86, 
and  "Muscles,"  p.  90,  to  Exercise  VIII,  p.  93.  Work  out  Exercises 
VIII,  IX  and  X,  p.  93.  Select  from  the  remaining  exercises  given 
those  that  are  best  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  class,  and  to  the  time, 

DECEMBER. 

Figure  and  Animal  Drawing. — Read  from  "Anatomy  of  Animals," 
p.  94,  to  the  end  of  the  chapter.  Make  such  sketches  of  animals  as 
opportunity  permits.  As  much  work  with  animals  and  with  the  figure 
may  be  given  as  the  teacher  deems  advisable.  Abundant  material  for 
interesting  studies  is  given  in  the  exercises  and  suggestions  on  p.  94. 

JANUARY. 

Constructive  Drawing:  The  Development  of  Surfaces. — Study 
paragraph  "The  Development  of  Surfaces,"  pp.  159  and  160,  to  Exer- 
cise I.  On  pp.  160  to  167  will  be  found  a  number  of  problems  which 
develop  sequentially.  The  teacher  should  select  from  these  a  number  of 
exercises,  carrying  the  class  as  far  as  time  permits. 

FEBRUARY. 

Historic  Ornament. — Chapter  VII.  p.  277.  This  subject  is  felt  to  be 
important  as  an  element  of  general  education,  and  the  matter  therein 
contained  should  form  the  basis  of  note-book  compilations,  illustrated  by 
Perry  prints,  blue  prints  or  sketches.  The  lessons  can  be  recited  in 
class,  and  the  note-books  made  and  arranged  there,  if  time  permits. 
If  such  work  does  not  meet  the  requirements  of  the  school,  further 
work  in  Constructive  or  Architectural  Drawling  may  be  given,  or  a 
brief  course  in  Mechanical  Perspective.  (See  Chapters  IV  and  V,  and 
p.  59  in  Chapter  II.) 

MARCH. 

Art  History. — The  same  option  is  suggested  for  Chapter  VIII,  p. 
303.  This  is  felt  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  chapters  of  the  book, 
so  far  as  the  cultural  element  is  concerned,  and  may  be  presented  by  the 
method  suggested  for  "Historic  Ornament"  in  February. 

APRIL. 

Design. — General  review  of  principles  of  design.  Special  review 
of  color  schemes,  monochromatic  and  complementary,  pp.  254  to  257, 
to  Exercise  XXXIV.  Work  out  Exercises  XXXIV,  XXXV  and 
XXXVI.    . 


OUTLINE  IN  DRAWING  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


MAY, 

Design:  Analogous  Color  Schemes. — Study  "Analogous  Color 
Schemes,"  p.  258.  Work  out  Exercises  XXXVII,  XXXVIII  and 
XXXIX,  p.  258.  Study  "Dominant  Harmony,"  pp.  259  and  260. 
Select  problems  to  be  worked  out  from  Exercises  XL,  XLI  and  XLII, 
p.  260. 

JUNE. 

Design:  Other  Color  Sources. — P.  261.  Apply  color  schemes 
from  such  sources  in  the  working  out  of  further  problems,  as  sug- 
gested in  pp.  261  to  276. 


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